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TRAINING NOTES FOR 

CONFIDENTIAL 


NAVAL AVIATORS 


AND AIRCREWMEN 

CONAVAER 00-80S-S9 






















SEEING 



AIRCRAFT 

Training Notes for Naval Aviators 
and Aircrewmen 



CONFIDENTIAL 

ISSUED BY AVIATION TRAINING DIVISION ★ OFFICE OF THE 
CHIEF OF NAVAL OPERATIONS ★ U. S. NAVY 
CONAVAER 00-80S-59 OPNAV 33-NY-72 
JULY 1945 





59 

t*OV fc 194& 

Sana 

flw ys*w?j id •**&*& 



PREFACE 


This pamphlet has been prepared in response 
to requests from service activities. Its purpose is 
to teach naval aviation* flight personnel how bet¬ 
ter to see and identify the targets they will be 
assigned to attack. 

SEEING FROM AIRCRAFT seeks to accom¬ 
plish this purpose by' bringing together in sum¬ 
marized form much 'of the available information 
on the principles and practical appllications—the 
tricks of the trade—of skillful aerial observation. 
The subject is important to every pilot and air- 
crewman, whether engaged in attack operations, 
search operations, training, or routine flying, be¬ 
cause effective use of vision is essential to all flying. 

There have been numerous technical publica¬ 
tions on specific techniques of observation, as in 
the case of night vision. However, this text deals 
in general with the whole problem of seeing from 
the air, especially in combat. It is thought to be 
the first approach of its kind to the subject. 

The practical points presented herein have been 
developed in combat. Study this information. It 
will help you to get more hits. 


TABLE OF 

Preface 

Section I. Introduction 

So You Think You Can See? 

Seeing Is a Developed Skill 

Section II. The Eyes and Their Use 

Mechanics of Seeing 
Limitations of the Eye 
Summary 

Section III. Principles of Good 
Observation 

The “Mind’s Eye” 

Scanning 

Patterns for Scanning 
Corner-of-Eye Vision 
Speed of Scanning 
Levels of Attention 
Make Use of Contrast 
4 


CONTENTS 


Angle of Light 25 

Texture 26 

Pattern 26 

Discontinuity 30 

Movement 31 

Judging Size and Distance 32 

Aids to Distance Estimation 33 

Estimating Ground Distance 33 

Obstacles to Good Observation 35 

Summary 37 


Section IV. Preparation for 


Search 38 

Briefing 38 

Aids to Search Preparation 39 

Aerial Photographs 41 

Oblique Photographs 42 

Vertical Photographs 43 

Stereoscopic Paired Photographs 43 

Color Photographs 43 

Infrared Photographs 43 


CONFIDENTIAL 


3 

6 

6 

8 

9 

10 

10 

13 

14 

14 

15 

15 

17 

18 

19 

20 


Terrain Models 
High-Level Models 
Target Models 
Assault Models 
Prepare Your Equipment 
Clean That Windshield! 

Use Goggles and Glasses 

Binoculars 

Summary 

Section V. Making the Search 

Planning and Coordination 
Air Search 

What to Look For 
Sea Search 
Altitudes 

Watch for Wakes 
Silhouettes Stand Out 
Color Counts 
Keep Low 
Remember This! 

Land Search 

Special Techniques 
Underground Installations 
Summary 
CONFIDENTIAL 


Section VI. Attack Search 70 

Close Air Support 71 

Preparing for Strikes and Support 

Operations 73 

How to See Front Lines 75 

Spotting Shellfire 75 

Getting the Dope 76 

Reporting What You See 76 

Summary 77 


Appendix A. Selected Views of 
Japanese Installations and 
Guide to Photographic Intel¬ 
ligence Center Publications 78 


Japanese Antiaircraft and 

Coastal Defense Positions 78 

Japanese Military Buildings 78 

Japanese Pillboxes 85 

Japanese Electronics 85 

Japanese Camouflage 86 

Other Publications Available 90 


Appendix B. Standard Symbols 91 


Appendix C. Estimating Size and 

Distance 95 


43 

43 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

46 

46 

47 

47 

49 

49 

51 

51 

52 

55 

56 

57 

57 

58 

58 

68 

69 


5 


SECTION I 
INTRODUCTION 




So You Think You Can See? 

You’ve got a fine pair of eyes—you must have, 
to become a Naval Aviator or Aircrewman. When 
you knocked that tough eye test for 20/20 you 
probably congratulated yourself and felt only pity 
for the Weakeye Yokums who grope around in 
astigmatic fog. 

But—can you really see from an airplane? That 
is, do you know how to use your good eyesight to 
the best advantage? 

To be brutally frank about it, you probably 
don’t. Not unless you have studied and practiced, 
or learned from long experience, the principles of 
thorough, accurate observation from the air. 

For example, consider the following report: 

Faulty Observation Leaves 179 Nips 
Undisturbed 

A sweep over Hamamatsu Field near Tokyo in the 
late afternoon of 16 February reported nil a/c on that 
field. This observation was made despite the opinion 
that Hamamatsu was the place from which our fleet 
might expect heavy bombing attacks. When photo¬ 
graphs made by another carrier were examined later, 
they showed no less than 179 twin-engine bombers 
on the field dispersal areas. 

The task group action report, commenting on this 
incident, observed: “There was absolutely no doubt 
that in his (the pilot’s) mind that the flight reached 
the correct field. He was amazed to learn of the 
presence of so many enemy planes, and would have 
been difficult to convince without the photographs. 
His reaction to them seemed to indicate a possible 


flaw in the training and briefing of pilots for observa¬ 
tion. It appeared that the report of nil a/c present 
was based on no more than an observation of the 
actual strip itself. The careful inspection of likely 
dispersal area surrounding the field never seemed to 
have occurred to these VF pilots. Yet enemy planes, 
not camouflaged or concealed, were thick as flies 
throughout this area.” 

In another instance, a flight of bombers sup¬ 
porting an amphibious operation did not find its 
target in relation to landmarks given as reference 
points, but instead used the smoke of bombs 
dropped by a previous wave as markers. Un¬ 
fortunately, the smoke had blown back across 
our own lines, and our troops were bombed with 
disastrous results. 

Sharp eyework and headwork, on the other 
hand, have saved many American lives. Take the 
case of the close support strike that was ordered 
to bomb and strafe Jap troops on Mount Tenjo 
on Guam. Just before the planes arrived, the 
Marines broke through the Jap lines and rushed 
forward—right into the area that was to be strafed 
and bombed. However, the commander of the 
attacking planes went down for a look at the target 
before ordering the attack. He was puzzled by the 
fact that the troops didn’t take cover on sighting 
American planes. He then went clear down to 
the deck for a close look and positively identified 
the forces in the target area as our own, and 
called off the attack. “If we had gone in to the 


6 


CONFIDENTIAL 








target without checking the identity of the troops 
and equipment, several hundred of our own men 
would have been killed," he reported. He used his 
eyes and his brain. 

In the early part of the war, when our hold on 
the Pacific was none too secure, the whole course 
of the war might have been changed if certain 
search plane pilots had not been keen-eyed and 
curious. A number of times the Jap tried to sur¬ 
prise us with large forces sneaking in on our 
island outposts under the cover of storm fronts. 
In several cases the surprise was almost successful, 
and would have been, except for the fact that 
vague shadows and minute flashes, or old wake 
lines caught the eyes of trained observers and led 
to the discovery of the enemy fleet. 

As the war moves into its final phase, effective 
aerial observation becomes even more vital and 
more difficult. You will be flying over unfamiliar 
terrain bristling with targets and opposition. You 
will be doing more and more close support of 


ground troops, when ability to see right is a 
matter of life and death, not only for you, but 
for the American foot soldier, a great guy with a 
tough job, the kind of man you’re there to help. 
The enemy will make greater and more cunning 
efforts to deceive your eyes with dummy, instal¬ 
lations, camouflage, and misdirection. 

Your success will depend on training your mind 
to the new conditions, following the principles 
of good observation, and developing experience 
in (1) using your eyes most effectively, (2) know¬ 
ing what to look for, and (3) how it looks under 
different conditions. 

Good combat vision isn’t something you can 
take for granted or shrug off. Put yourself in the 
place of the pilot who flew over an enemy airfield 
and reported it deserted. A short time later an 
air group struck the field and shot up 40 cleverly 
camouflaged enemy planes on the ground. This 
eye and brain failure could have been costly to 
our forces. 



CONFIDENTIAL 


7 






Seeing Is a Developed Skill 

Almost anyone with normal eyesight can teach 
himself to become a good aerial observer. It’s 
much the same process as learning to be a boxer, 
swimmer, pianist, artist, or anything else that 
requires developed coordination between your 
mind and your physical equipment. Visual acuity 
has been the subject of a lot of misleading legends. 
Dan’l Boone was supposed to have some mysteri¬ 
ous sixth sense that enabled him to track an 
Indian through miles of primeval forest. But 
he did it with his eyes—and his head. The chances 
are DanTs eyes weren’t any better than yours— 
his existence depended on training himself to 
see and interpret the significance of a bent blade of 
grass, a tree limb out of place, an almost invisible 
moccasin print on a hard trail, a faint wisp of 
smoke, or any of the countless “signs” used by 
pioneer scouts. Some day your existence may 
depend on small signs, too. 


Effective aerial observation depends on keen 
vision, alertness, and a knowledge of “what to look 
for,” plus a lot of practice in planned use of the 
eyes. You know, of course, that no skill of any 
kind can be acquired by . merely reading about it, 
or by a few hours of training—it can be developed 
only by constant directed practice in the air, 
preferably over the kind of scene you will be 
looking at in combat. Good aerial observation 
should be an integral part of flying, not an isolated 
accomplishment. 

However, a booklet such as this will aid you 
by describing the basic facts and principles of 
good observation, by summarizing practical infor¬ 
mation gained from operational experiences of 
many pilots, and by listing valuable references 
for detailed information on the many phases of 
the problem of seeing. 

In this war you’ve got to be able to see ’em 
as well as hit ’em. 



8 


CONFIDENTIAL 

















SECTION II 

THE EYES 
AND THEIR USE 



If you know all about the mechanics of vision, 
just skip this section. However, if you have for¬ 
gotten some of the major points, it may be helpful 
to refresh your savvy as to how the eye operates. 
Most of the tricks of the trade of observation 
are fairly simple, but they all depend on knowing 
how to use your eyes. 



Some might think that a fly would make a 
first-class observer. His eyes are huge, proportion¬ 
ately, to the rest of him; they are multiple-celled, 
and are set to give him a tremendous field of 
vision. The trouble is, the fly has little, if any, 
brainpower. 

You, on the other hand, are presumed to have 
more brain than eyes. In fact, your eyes are 
merely an extension of your brain, and you ''see" 
in your brain through the nerve impulses sent 
from the eye through the optic nerves to the 
brain. Much of aerial seeing—as all seeing—is a 
mental process and can be controlled and im¬ 
proved by conscious effort. 

Your eyes are receiving literally thousands of 
images at all times and these are meaningless 
until your mind selects certain ones for conscious 
attention and interprets or “reads’' them. 

Naturally, your mind develops certain habits. 
A flyer has to revise and improve his seeing habits 
as a part of the process of becoming an aviator; 
he has to think afresh to recognize objects 
from the perspective of the air, learn to spot 
certain types of landmarks that aid him in locat¬ 
ing himself, develop judgment as to altitude, and 
learn to find targets, pierce camouflage, and co¬ 
ordinate all of this while attacking. The process 
will require much conscious mental effort until 
it becomes a fixed habit. When it does become 
a habit, good seeing is no more of a mental effort 
than handling the controls of your airplane. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


9 













YOUR EYE... 


FOVEA 


OPTIC NERVE 
CHOROID 


...aliving camera 


Mechanics of Seeing 

The eye is a complex, self-adjusting optical 
instrument that works on the same principle as 
a camera. It takes a continuously changing pic¬ 
ture—in color—of the scene at which it points. 

Civilized men have used lines for so long to 
indicate form that unless we figure it out we are 
inclined to forget that we really don’t see things 
as outlines. A line drawing of something is a 
symbol which merely outlines the object, and 
when looking at such a drawing your mind draws 
on experience and automatically fills in the blank 
spaces between the lines and interprets the 
picture. 

Any artist knows that the eye distinguishes only 
the reflections of light on the surface of an object 
—that a surface which reflects much light appears 
light, and one which reflects little light appears 
dark. So, for visual purposes, any object is merely 
an arrangement of lights and darks of varying 


degrees and contrast which produce the form. 
That is why 'camouflage artists can take a few 
cans of paint and create the illusion of a building 
on a perfectly flat surface; they simply paint light 
and dark areas similar to those made by a building. 

The eye also sees colors, but only at certain 
levels of illumination. Colors aid in producing the 
effect of form and mass, particularly if contrast¬ 
ing. Slight differences in color often tip off the 
keen-eyed observer to the presence of objects the 
enemy wants to keep hidden. Colors also can 
reduce the perception of form as, for example, 
when an object is painted to blend into the color 
of its background. 

Limitations of the Eye 

One of the most common faults in aerial obser¬ 
vation is taking for granted that you can see 
things which simply cannot be seen under the 
conditions you impose. For example, if you search 


10 


CONFIDENTIAL 


for a man on a small rubber raft but maintain an 
altitude of several thousand feet you aren’t going 
to find him—not even if you fly right over him. 
Under normal circumstances you can’t see him 
from that height. If he has no dye marker, you 
have to fly at about 1000 feet or less to be sure of 
seeing him. 

The smallest detail the eye can see varies con¬ 
siderably, depending on factors such as (1) sensi¬ 
tiveness of the eye, (2) conditions of lighting, 
(3) contrast of the object with its background, 
and (4) intervening haze. 

Theoretically, a normal eye is presumed to 
subtend one minute of arc for 20/20 vision. This 
means that under the best conditions—maximum 
contrast, clear day, no haze—you presumably can 


distinguish an object slightly over one inch long at 
300 feet with 20/20 vision. 

Actually, the eyes seldom have a chance to give 
capacity performance. Under actual conditions of 
search, the longest practical range at which you 
can see a fighter plane, well contrasted against a 
background of clouds, is much less than the 
theoretical range. Search for a man floating in a 
life preserver is made highly difficult by lack of 
contrast, distraction of the movement of the 
waves, haze in the air, and the angle of the man 
from the path of the plane, to say nothing about 
the blind spots made by the plane’s wings, reduc¬ 
tion of vision by dirt or grease on the plexiglass, 
glare, etc. Such search is practical only from very 
low altitudes. 


VISIBILITY IS REDUCED BY 
HAZE, WAVE MOTION, LACK OF CONTRAST 




CONFIDENTIAL 







However, by taking advantage of many aids 
which tend to help observation, the actual sighting 
ability of your eyes can be made to approach 
the theoretical level of performance. 

The Blind Spot. Each of your eyes has a normal 
blind spot which projects into space as a cone of 
blindness about 5° to 8° in diameter. This is 
roughly a circular area about one inch in diameter 
at a distance of one foot from the eye and three 
inches outboard from the center line of vision. 
At 1000 feet it becomes an area about 90 feet 
in diameter, and at one mile is about 450 feet in 
diameter. So, a very large object can be hidden 
by your blind spot. 


The main things to know about blind spots are 
that you have them, and what to do about them. 
When an object is in your blind spot you simply 
don’t see it with one eye. This is demonstrated 
by the diagram below. Cover the right eye with 
your right hand and stare steadily at the cross. 
Move the page slowly away, and when the circle 
falls into the cone of blindness of your left eye 
(at about 12 inches) it will disappear. 

Under average conditions blind spots don’t 
bother you because you use both eyes and an 
object in the cone of blindness of one eye is seen 
by the other. However, when some obstruction, 
such as a windshield post, cuts off the image of 


< 8 > + 



12 


CONFIDENTIAL 







the seeing eye, an object in the blind spot of 
the other eye simply is not seen. If the object 
is not a source of danger to you, you may never 
realize that you missed seeing it. If “it” should 
be an enemy fighter, you may be so surprised that 
you’ll never get an opportunity to investigate your 
blind spots. 

The answer to this problem is using both eyes, 
systematically scanning all portions of a field, and 
moving your head frequently while searching, as 
discussed in relation to search procedures. 

Summary—The Eyes and Their Use 

1. Seeing is a mental as well as physical process 
and can be improved by conscious mental 
effort. Develop your powers of observation by 
using good sight habits. 


2. Knowing how the eye sees by means of con¬ 
trast between light and dark and between 
colors, helps you to distinguish objects better, 
to pierce camouflage more easily. 

3. You should know the limits of your eyes under 
various conditions of distance, light, haze, and 
contrast. Otherwise you may search for objects 
at altitudes and distances from which they 
cannot be seen. 

4. Realize that you have a natural blind spot in 
both eyes which can cause you to miss seeing 
large objects if the view is partially obstructed. 
Move your head while scanning to prevent 
blind areas in your field of view. 

5. Once developed by careful practice, mental 
habits of aerial observation become fixed. Be 
sure you develop good habits, eliminate poor 
ones. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


13 







SECTION III 
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD 
OBSERVATION 


The “Mind’s Eye” 

Have you ever noticed how a friend’s face 
seemed to stand out in a crowd? Or when you 
run down the columns of a telephone directory 
looking for a familiar name, how it seemed to 
jump out at you? Or when you won a new stripe, 
it seemed suddenly that there was a big increase 
in the number of stripes just like yours? In these 
cases you were prepared to see something. And 
when you have a mental picture of what you are 
looking for, built up from study and memory, 
you find it more quickly and easily. On the other 
hand, if you don’t know what the object looks 
like, or what landmarks are near it, you can be sure 
it is going to be difficult and perhaps impossible 
to find. You may pass by without ever seeing it. 

Preparing the mind’s eye is one of the first and 
foremost of the principles of good observation. 

For example, during a series of attacks against 
an enemy airfield, pilots repeatedly failed to see 
some unexpected gun positions. As a result, the 
AA fire constituted a threat against our attacking 
planes longer than necessary. These gun positions 
showed up plainly in photographs of the area 
and, had the pilots familiarized their “mind’s 
eyes” with the appearance and location of the 
positions, they would have spotted these danger 
points immediately. 

There are many aids for training your eyes to 
be ready to look for given objects. Maps of an 
area are a valuable aid. True, the map often 


doesn’t look like the area to the untrained eye, 
but if you learn to understand the symbols used 
and the contour lines, and get the general layout 
of the area, your mind’s eye soon will be able to 
read it, just as you can “read” photographs with 
a little practice. 

A photograph of the area to be searched can 
be of great value to you—but again it isn’t enough 
just to look at the photograph. You have to study 
it, have it interpreted by an expert, to locate 
landmarks and installations, and prepare your eyes 
with an impression of what various objects are 
going to look like and their relation to one 
another. 

In this connection, the U. S. Navy Photographic 
Intelligence Center has developed extensive aids 
which you can—and should—use to prepare for 
a first-class job of observation over enemy territory. 
These consist of books of photographs and draw¬ 
ings, with explanatory information, of such enemy 
targets as pillboxes, machine gun emplacements, 
radio and radar installations, command posts, 
barracks layouts, airfields, beach defenses, anti¬ 
aircraft installations, aircraft factories, and steel 
factories. Familiarizing yourself with these will do 
much to sharpen your eyes for spotting significant 
objects while flying over enemy territory. 

The Air Intelligence Group of the Division of 
Naval Intelligence also issues regular publications 
dealing with Japanese antiaircraft defenses. These 


14 


CONFIDENTIAL 


aids are listed in Appendix A. Get them and 
study. 

Another very worthwhile device in getting the 
eyes “set” for a given area, is a three-dimensional 
model. While models do not show small details 
(unless they are extremely large or are restricted to 
small areas) they give a much better general im¬ 
pression of an area than do maps or photographs. 
Special small detail models have played a key 
part in preparing flyers for pinpoint attacks on 
specific installations, where a certain building or a 
certain key part of a building had to be hit in 
order to accomplish the purpose of the mission. 

These aids are important because they give you 
the meaning of a scene. In other words, if you 
look at something with a definite purpose, it 
becomes riveted in your mind, while things ob¬ 
served without purpose, do not. Thus, a great 
deal of flying over an area won’t necessarily give 
you skill in observing the area. But if you fly 
over it well prepared, knowing (1) what you are 
looking for (2) what it looks like, (3) where you 
are likely to find it, and (4) what aids are present 
to point it out, your chances of successful observa¬ 
tion are vastly improved. 

Generally speaking, there are a number of 
habits of seeing that combine to give you a good 
technique. In other words, just as a good boxer 
has to learn to time his punches, roll with a blow, 
and keep his guard up, so you have to train your 
eyes to scan, avoid blind spots, make use of con¬ 
trast, automatically spot discontinuity or move¬ 
ment, and so on. 

Scanning 

You see well only the things you look at 
directly. This seems obvious, but it is worth keep¬ 
ing in mind. A motionless surfaced submarine is 
visible to direct vision at 10 miles, but can be 
seen only at 6 miles if the eyes are 5° off the 
visual center, and when your gaze is 10° off the 
straight line to the sub, you can see it at only 2 
miles! Thus, in order to see what is in any area, 
you must look directly at every spot in the area. 

This can be done only by planned, continuous, 
systematic scanning of the area. 



Patterns for Scanning 

There is no one ideal pattern for movement of 
the eyes in scanning. You should work out a 
pattern that is the least tiring to you, as long as 
you cover the entire area to be searched. Scan¬ 
ning takes conscious effort and you should develop 
your methods by thoughtful practice. 

Here are a few pointers: Scan the areas nearest 
you at first and then work out toward the limits 
of your field of vision. The relationship of near 
objects changes more rapidly than those more 
distant, and so must be given first attention. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


15 










HORIZONTAL-DIAGONAL scanning pattern. 


16 


CONFIDENTIAL 









Another thing, keep the pattern simple. In 
general, it has been found that one of the easiest 
scanning patterns to follow is one of parallel 
sweeps of the eyes, starting at the top of the part 
of field to be scanned and moving down by steps. 

Another pattern is made by moving the line 
of vision horizontally across the field, then down, 
then diagonally up toward the starting point, 
then straight down a step and across. 

Scanning should be suited to the scene. In 
looking over an island or coast area, for example, 
it will be natural, and often profitable, to scan 
along the shore line, where the enemy frequently 
tries to hide shipping and where tracks, piers, and 
small boats may give you valuable clues to enemy 
activity. 

You can vary these patterns, reverse them, or 
work out new ones to give you rest or relief from 
the strain of prolonged search—as long as you 
don’t leave any portion of the field uncovered for 
more than a few minutes. Blinking the eyes 
occasionally will give them some rest. Changing 



the depth of focus from far to near objects, or 
staring into space for a few seconds without 
focusing, will give your eyes some relief. 

Corner-of-Eye Vision 

The vision from the corner of your eye is 
most sensitive to movement. This is another 
reason why scanning is essential to effective search. 
Pilots often report that they became aware of 
something present in an area just scanned after 
the eyes have moved to another area. When this 
occurs it may result from movement that “trig¬ 
gers” the off-center vision. A careful return 
search may locate the source of the movement and 
give details regarding it. 

For example, a Jap airfield was cleverly hidden 
near our lines and was launching annoying night 
attacks on our airstrips. But one day a pilot 
happened to notice some coconut palms moving. 
He investigated this phenomenon and found the 
source of the Jap planes. The wily Nips had 
hidden a complete airstrip under palm trees 
mounted on sleds. In the daytime it was an 



BOMBS find an enemy vessel hidden along the shore line. Careful scanning will reveal 
several small ships similarly concealed. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


17 




A HARMLESS NATIVE VILLAGE at first glance, but a pilot using the principles of good vision 
will find gun positions, pillboxes, camouflaged huts, and large dumps of supplies under the trees. 


ordinary-looking plantation. At night the palms 
were dragged aside and the planes were launched. 

Speed of Scanning 

This depends on the type of terrain, the size 
of the objects being looked for, and the speed of 
your airplane. In scanning, the eye moves in a 
series of small steps, stops momentarily, and 
moves on. The eye does not see clearly when it 
is in motion, so it is important that these pauses 
be long enough to enable it to register on distant 
objects. Ideally, the rate of scanning for best 
vision, is slow, about 1 ° per second, but this is 
much too slow for use from an airplane and a 
scanning rate of about 10° per second is more 
practical. The point is, keep your scanning as 
slow as possible, considering your airspeed and 


the size of the area to be covered. Scanning too 
fast will mean the loss of some details. 

When scanning, use both eyes and keep your 
head moving, too. Perhaps you’ve noticed how a 
hunting hawk, noted for his good vision and his 
wide range of sight, keeps his head turning slowly 
from side to side as he floats along. He knows 
how to scan. Keep your head and eyes moving 
to cover the whole field with the most sensitive 
part of your eye and to avoid blind spots. Your 
blind spot becomes dangerous when you use only 
one eye or don’t move your head. Furthermore, 
holding your head in a fixed position leads to 
blank staring. Staring like this means your mind 
has slipped its clutch to your eyes—and that is as 
bad as sleeping on watch. 


18 


CONFIDENTIAL 








TANKS are difficult to see under many conditions. There are 13 amphibious tanks in this 
picture_11 of them on the beach. Can you find all 13? A hint: Follow the tracks. 


Levels of Attention 

You have to learn to concentrate your attention, 
by conscious effort, toward the place where it is 
logical for you to find what you are looking for. 
This takes effort. It is easy, much too easy, to let 
your mind and eyes drift to the levels where they 
won’t have to work very hard. If you are searching 
a densely wooded area, your sight will drift along 
the tops of the trees unless you consciously con¬ 
centrate on other levels. Yet it stands to reason 
that most of the enemy installations will be on 
the ground under the trees. So, until you get the 
habit, you will have to force your eyes to look 
down under the trees, into the shadows. Similarly, 
if you can see a road or taxi strip until it fades 
out into trees or other natural camouflage, don’t 


fail to concentrate your attention at that point 
until you can see what you are looking for and 
understand it completely—the enemy hopes that 
your eyes will slide off when the going gets tough 
and turn to something easier to see, perhaps some 
dummy installations in plain sight away from the 
real target. Remember, when scanning: 

(1) The pattern is not important as long as you 
are systematic and cover the entire area to 
be searched; avoid patterns that leave holes 
in the area. 

(2) Don’t fail to cover the areas of poor light 
or poor contrast. These are difficult to see 
but may be a source of a surprise attack or 
important hidden installations. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


19 


(3) Move the eyes slowly in a series of small 
steps, about 10° per second or slower, 
depending on the area to be covered. Use 
both eyes and move the head with the eyes. 

(4) Practice consistently until scanning be¬ 
comes a habit and requires no great amount 
of attention. Check up on your scanning 
frequently, however, even after it has 
become a habit. 

Make Use of Contrast 

Look at a black and white photograph. Origin¬ 
ally it was a white sheet of paper. But varying 
shades from black to gray to white, have been 


chemically reproduced on it to give you a 
“picture” of the subject. A color photograph 
simply adds in the colors in varying intensities. 
Just as a camera picks up the contrast between 
light and dark and therefore “sees” objects, so 
your eyes interpret a scene by the contrast of light 
and dark or in different colors. 

Contrast probably is the most important single 
factor in observing things efficiently from an 
airplane. If you become trained in interpreting 
contrast, you will see more and interpret better 
what you see. 

Objects on the' ground cannot be seen unless 
they contrast in some manner with their back- 



20 


CONFIDENTIAL 



PLENTY OF CONTRAST —easy to see. 


ground or other object. For instance, a brown 
object against a brown background can’t be dis¬ 
tinguished unless it (1) throws a shadow, which 
produces contrast in light and dark, or (2) has a 
distinct form which breaks the background or 
the horizon, which also produces a contrast. If 
there is no contrast—you can’t see it. The Japs 
are well aware of this fact. They are a pretty 
artistic outfit and show much skill in using camou¬ 
flage to eliminate or reduce contrast. You have 
to be just as clever in order to see through the 
problems the Jap creates for you. 

Nature helps the observer at times with contrast 
—and at other times makes it difficult. You have 
to know the difference in order to observe well. 


In looking over an area of uniform appearance, 
such as jungle vegetation, anything that seems out 
of agreement with this background of smooth 
green carpet first hits the eye. Often such con¬ 
trast results from the work of man and is worth 
looking into. This contrast may result from 
colors, lights and darks, texture, or in the dis¬ 
continuity of some natural or man-made patterns. 

Contrasting color stands out clearly from lowei 
altitudes and is a most useful eye tool. At high 
altitudes all color tends to fade out due to increas¬ 
ing haze. Consequently at altitudes where color 
can be seen, more detail will show up, and the 
meaning of color-contrasting objects can be in¬ 
terpreted. Foliage used for camouflage often shows 


CONFIDENTIAL 


21 


























contrast with its background when observed from 
low altitudes. It is difficult to reproduce in 
camouflage the exact shades of the surrounding 
foliag'e at all times of day or to match the changes 
of season. Camouflage foliage may be of lighter 
color because the undersides of the leaves are 
showing, or it may become browned with age, 
which also produces contrast. 

The freshly cut ends of tree stumps show 
through the green foliage as white, yellow or 
orange. Earth from fox holes, slit trenches, and 
gun emplacements makes a contrast in brown, 
appearing as scars against the uniform green. 
Such “signs” of enemy activity may be of tremen¬ 
dous significance. Once a pilot flying low over the 
jungle noticed a small spot of orange in the other¬ 
wise solid green of the jungle. He circled at once 
and found it to be broken wood where a branch 


had been torn from a tree. He circled again this 
time concentrating his sight under the trees, and 
was able to see . where a trail went by this tree 
and some large vehicle had broken the branch. 
By persistently following up these clues, he was 
able to find the direction in which the trail went 
and finally discovered the route by which Japs 
were transporting large amounts of men and equip¬ 
ment into a vital area. Thus a small clue of con¬ 
trast, followed by persistent search, led to infor¬ 
mation of the highest value. 

Contrasting light and shadow often show up 
more clearly than do the objects themselves. 
Over water the wakes of submarines and ships 
stand out more clearly than do the vessels them¬ 
selves. Ships can be camouflaged with dazzle 
paint patterns to break up their outlines and the 
hulls blend into dark backgrounds, but wakes 


22 


CONFIDENTIAL 






DISTURBED EARTH and tracks lead to enemy construction activity or installations by 
contrasting with the background in tone and color. 


can’t be hidden. The shape of buildings can be 
broken up from all angles by the blending-in of 
colors, but the structure always casts shadows 
that are very difficult to conceal, particularly early 
in the morning or late in the afternoon, when the 
sun’s rays are low and slanting. Such shadows on 
the ground often show more of the outline of the 
structure than does direct observation of the 
building itself. 

A special case of light contrast is that arising 
from reflection of smooth surfaces as a shine or 
flash of light. Metal equipment, windshields, 


tin roofs, water, and other smooth surfaces fre¬ 
quently can be seen by their flashes. This occurs 
so seldom in nature without human activity that it 
always is worth investigating closely, as in the 
following case in North Africa: 

“The development and success of a mission 
was cinched by the confirmation of a flash of 
light by a B-17 pilot. A P-40 pilot on deck 
operation over enemy territory spotted a glint 
of light from something he didn’t recognize. 
He plotted the location and reported it. Then 
one of the B-17 pilots reported he had seen a 


CONFIDENTIAL 


23 





SLANTING LIGHT — shadows show up form of objects. 



24 


CONFIDENTIAL 








flash of light from the same point and had 
drawn heavy flak fire from the position. We 
went out on a low altitude mission and blew 
up a large fuel dump that had been extremely 
well camouflaged.” 

Angle of Light 

Often the angle of light can be used to increase 
the contrast and make it easier to see or find ob¬ 
jects. In low slanting light, shadows are much more 
obvious. Holes, digging operations, revetments, 
grounded planes, vehicle tracks, and even foot¬ 
prints in soft ground, all show up much better, 
being outlined clearly by dark shadows. When 
you look with (or down) slanting light, irregular 
objects or terrain will appear comparatively light, 
while smooth objects will appear dark. When 
viewed against (or up) the light, the process is 
almost completely reversed, as smooth objects 
reflect the light toward you and appear bright, 
while irregular objects break up the light, reflect¬ 
ing much of it back, and appear dark. Wherever 
possible, it will pay you to observe an area from 
both up-sun (or up-moon) and down-sun (or 
down-moon) in order to get a complete impres¬ 
sion of the scene. 

Motionless tanks, for example, are more difficult 
to see than might be supposed, whether camou¬ 
flaged or not. Experienced pilots report that often 
they cannot be detected down-sun because they 
tend to blend with the landscape, but that up-sun 
their smooth, hard surfaces cause reflections that 
can be seen, even though painted with so-called 
non-reflecting paint. 



SMOOTH SURFACE 



BROKEN OR ROUGH SURFACE 



_mu in xlihuii imlllill llihi it mil mllil _ 

MATTE OR TUFTED SURFACE 


CONFIDENTIAL 


25 






Texture 

As indicated in the preceding paragraph, dif¬ 
ferent types of surfaces reflect light differently 
because of variation in texture. These differences 
provide a key to identity of objects and areas. A 
smooth surface casts no shadow, absorbs little 
light, and reflects light evenly. A still body of 
water, such as a lake or river, or the sea during a 
calm, presents a smooth surface. A runway, paved 
road, or roofs of buildings also have smooth tex¬ 
ture, and will reflect light as shown in the photo¬ 
graph. Remember: Up-sun, smooth textures 
appear very light, down-sun they appear dark. 

A rough surface, such as barren rocky ground, 
breaks up the light in many angles and tends to 
appear grey, when viewed from above. When 
viewed down a slanting light, a certain amount of 
the light is reflected back and makes such a surface 
appear light (although not as light as a smooth 
texture viewed up-light). When viewed up-light, 
a rough textured surface appears dark because 
little of the light is reflected forward toward the 
observer. 

A matte surface, one which is between rough 
and smooth, as a tufted surface, or scarred earth, 
scatters light in all directions, and appears fairly 
light when viewed from any direction. Grassed 
surface scatters light in many directions, and ap¬ 
pears fairly light from side angles. It is darkest 
from directly above, the direction in which the 
least light is reflected. A field of tall grass absorbs 
more light than a field of short grass and therefore 
appears much darker. Forested areas absorb a 
great deal of light and appear uniformly dark. 

Inconsistencies in tone and texture may give 
you the very clue you need to find enemy activity. 
The wary Jap may do a good job of matching the 
terrain for color, but still may be unable to match 
its texture. If so, the resulting contrast in tone 
and texture should stand out enough to make you 
suspicious. Also, his activities may disturb the 
texture enough to give you hints as to what he is 
up to. A group of men walking across a grassy 
field will tramp down enough grass to change the 
texture of the scene and the path will point clearly 
to where they have gone. 


Pattern 

Straight lines, symmetrical designs, and definite 
patterns are quite rare in nature. They usually 
point to human activities and indicate structures, 
fields, canals, roads, power lines, and other activi¬ 
ties. Even a buried pipe-line may create a line 
across the terrain because of the shadows in the 
hump or depression of the trench, or the lack of 
vegetation on top of it. Any straight line should 
be like a neon sign to your eye. It may be the 
side of a building, the edge of an airstrip the 
enemy is building, a road, fence, railroad or com¬ 
munication line. 

Frequently lines are non-continuous, as in the 
case of a series of telegraph poles, pillboxes, tank 
obstacles, or transportation units. Individually 
well-hidden machine guns or AA positions may be 
located in a systematic pattern, connected by 
trails or communications, so that the entire group 
stands out. A thin radio mast may not be visible 
from above, but the tapering black line of shadow 
or pattern of shadows it casts may provide the clue 
to lead you right to a radio installation. 

You may not be able to see the individual A A 
gun down there, or the Jap crouched beside it, 
praying to his Shinto ancestors to get you in range 
so he can give you "the business.” But you can 
spot the pattern, which should tell you all you 
need to know. AA have to be in clearings, and 
each type has a characteristic pattern. Heavy AA— 
and many of them are now radar controlled— 
usually make a half-rosette pattern, with dots or 
circles (the circular gun revetments) forming a 
semi-circle around a rather large rectangle (the 
fire control post). Sometimes there are six and 
sometimes four dots. The five-inch double heavy 
AA—the best the Japs have, usually shows up as a 
large rectangle (the fire control post) with a large 
circle (the guns) slightly off-set at each end of the 
rectangle. The 75 mm AA shows up the "spider” 
pattern formed by the five legs of the mount— 
and this pattern often is distinct even when the 
legs have been covered. Automatic AA shows up 
a rectangle inside a circle, and generally is within 
500 yards of what it is protecting. 


26 


CONFIDENTIAL 



&4M 


CAN YOU SEE THE AIRSTRIP being built under the trees? One pilot did, and we knocked 
it out before the Japs could use it. He spotted the runway as a straight line of lighter 
color showing under the trees. It runs almost horizontally across the center of the picture. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


27 



PATTERNS like these distinct circles are made by differences in vegetation. They 
clearly show where the Japs have buried big gasoline tanks. 


28 


CONFIDENTIAL 





SHADOW AND TONE CONTRAST make patterns that help you to spot the important installations 
and objects in this scene, including the airfield with 56 grounded planes, the 6-gun heavy AA 
battery with searchlight and sound locator at the point of land in upper left, the radio installation 
(note shadow of masts) and the batteries (two heavy AA and one automatic) on the small island 

at the bottom of the picture. 

CONFIDENTIAL 29 










TYPICAL HEAVY ANTIAIRCRAFT PATTERN, the kind it pays to see before they have you 
in range. Note the five-legged "spider" patterns which indicate 75-mm. guns. 


Discontinuity 

Have you ever noticed how your eyes were 
drawn to the gap in the teeth of a six-year-old’s 
smile? Or how a man in the ranks stands 
out when he is out of step? Or how the space 
left by a missing word in a line of type 
jumps right out at you? 

That’s because any change in a normal pattern 
or break in a continuous line attracts attention. 
It doesn’t belong there—and your mind’s eye no¬ 
tices it. The pattern of trees in a coconut planta¬ 
tion is so regular that any break in the pattern 
calls attention to a possible gun position, dug-out, 
or supply dump. Breaks in the line of a river or 
stream may indicate a bridge or ford, even though 



30 


CONFIDENTIAL 











DISCONTINUITY gives the clue. Why does the road suddenly end? Look closely and you'll 
see that it leads directly to carefully camouflaged gun positions. (Note the black shadows 
made by the embrasures. A smart pilot would never pass up this clue.) 


the roadway or trail on either side of the stream 
may be concealed under trees or foliage. A queer 
eddy in a stream might prove, on close investiga¬ 
tion, to be an underwater bridge or ford. A trail 
which can be seen leading up to a clump of trees, 
but doesn’t continue on the far side may indicate 
a gun position, a supply dump, or a bivouac. 
Anything that seems out of place may lead to an 
important discovery. 

Movement 

Advertising signs have long made use of the 
principle that movement is one of the most com¬ 
pelling means of attracting the eye. Not only is 
your peripheral vision particularly sensitive to 
movement, but motion also makes an object stand 


out from the general background. “Fighter pilots 
learned that Japs couldn’t be seen as long as they 
stood still,” one interview reads. “But when they 
started running they could be seen very nicely and 
our fighter pilots started shooting them like rab¬ 
bits. They (the pilots) would set a plane on fire 
and as the Japs ran toward it, the pilots would 
start shooting them running around on the ground. 
The Japs apparently learned that, too, and they 
got so they would ‘freeze’—then the pilots 
couldn’t see them and went about their primary 
business of attacking ships and guns.” A veteran 
combat pilot says, “You won’t see a good soldier 
unless he wants you to.” Chances are, any troops 
you’ll see will be our own men. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


31 







Judging Size and Distance 

Accurate judgment of size and distance is an 
integral part of effective aerial observation—yet 
many squadrons and units have found that large 
errors are all too common, even among old-timers. 
To be honest, it is difficult to judge size and di¬ 
stance accurately with the eye, unless good means 
of comparison are used, particularly in new ter¬ 
ritory where the size of reference objects is not 
known or is different than that to which you are 
accustomed. However, by working at the prob¬ 
lem and applying some rather simple common- 
sense methods, you can get to be pretty good at it. 

First, keep in mind that the only way the eye 
can measure the size of an unknown object is by 
direct comparison with some known object or by 
memory of a similar object. Hollywood has a trick 
of photographing normal-sized people in giant 
rooms with huge furniture, making the actors ap¬ 
pear to be midgets. 

Secondly, relative size is the principal means by 
which we measure distance with the eye. Consider 
the case of the photographer who was taking pic¬ 



tures around Grand Coulee Dam. His judgment 
of distance became so distorted by the massive 
structure that he took what he thought was a short 
step down, and found it was an 8-foot drop onto 
unyielding concrete. 

So, when the size of an object is unknown, you 
don’t know whether the size of the image in your 
eye—or your sights—is due to its distance or its 
size. When a twin-engined plane turns out to be 
a fighter instead of the big bomber you thought 
it was, and hence is much closer than you sup¬ 
posed, the problem is no longer academic—it’s a 
question of who is going to be ready to shoot first. 

Haze is another factor in judgment of distance, 
causing the outlines of distant objects to appear 
blurred. When there is more haze or smoke in the 
air than usual, the increased blurring often mis¬ 
leads the eye by making the object seem farther 
away than it actually is. Conversely, very clear air 
leads to underestimation of distance; a very com¬ 
mon experience for people who first visit the high, 
clear atmosphere of the Rockies is to start out on a 
“short walk” to a mountain 30 miles away. 


32 


CONFIDENTIAL 








































VEGETATION PATTERNS are useful. They help you to orient yourself, indicate the char¬ 
acter of the terrain, and provide a handy scale of ground distances. The fields in the 
characteristic grid-like pattern shown in this scene in the Philippines are about 80 to 

140 yards long. 


Aids to Distance Estimation 

There are several fairly simple methods of esti¬ 
mating the distance of objects from the spot over 
which you are flying or from your line of flight. 
All of these are based on basic triangular relation¬ 
ships, mostly the right angle, and make use of your 
altitude and angle to the object, or your speed— 
as in the well-known “Bow and Beam” method. 
A discussion and illustrations of these methods 
will be found in Appendix C. 

Estimating Ground Distance 

There are many ready-made “scales” on the sur¬ 
face of the earth which can be used to measure 
distances from point to point. These come in 
mighty handy when you are trying to find a small 


target that is, say, “2000 yards due south of cross¬ 
roads.” A ship’s hulk of known length, a pier, 
city blocks, buildings of known size, airfield run¬ 
ways, road widths, fields, and so on, frequently 
give you an accurate ground scale. 

At Saipan, for example, all sugar cane fields are 
about the same size, 140 x 200 yards, and pro¬ 
vided a very accurate ground scale for locating 
and aiming at targets. At Tinian the canefields 
not only are this uniform size, but also run north 
and south, giving direction as well as distance. On 
Formosa, fields are roughly square and about 200 
x 200 feet in size. Coconut trees, usually are 
planted about 32 feet apart. Japanese city blocks 
are about the same size as ours, being something 
like 600 x 600 feet. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


33 
















HO MISC.II.6I5 

CONFIDENTIAL 


ACI GRID OP NAV-16 V *S 175 

FOR ALL NACI-HO 8"x 8"CHARTS 


INSTRUCTIONS: READ FROM EXAMPLE-* 

LOWER LEFT CORNER:PARALLEL 2 

FIRST, THEN VERTICAL 

A 


“ABLE EIGHT 
DASH TWO 


JiMjinr 

M 1 1 | 11 II 

TTTTJTTTT 

1 III |l II 1 

i n r 11111 

t rrrpn'Tr 

TTTTJTTTT 

TTTTJTTTT 

TTTTJTTTT 

TTTTJTTTT 

r 










r 









~ 

r 










E- 










r 










r 










r 










mi Ix-ii-i- 









1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Ti-u 111 11 i 

1 11 1 1II 11 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l l 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

-iiiil 11 11 

-ii ill 1111 

ii»i1■■n 

JLl-li 111 1 1 

1 1 l 1 1 1 i l 1 

-iu 1 1 111 r 


34 


CONFIDENTIAL 

























When using gridded maps of target areas, the 
problem of estimating ground distance is greatly 
simplified, of course. The standard grid consists 
of large squares of 1000 yards indicated by number, 
and within these are 200-yard squares, indicated 
by letter. When finding targets by means of such 
a map, the usual procedure is to determine from 
the grid the location and distance between out¬ 
standing landmarks, such as lakes, clearings, air¬ 
fields, stretches of clearly identifiable roads. These 
are used to relate the ground scale to your target 
map. 

For instance, if the target should be designated 
as a pillbox in 153-Mike, the pilot has to locate 
this area and find the pillbox, which may be almost 
impossible to see at the height at which the attack 
dive is started. However, he can locate it by deter¬ 
mining that on the map square 153-Mike is 
marked by a distinctive curve in a road and is 
about 1000 yards southeast of a lake that is 1000 
yards long. He can then line himself up with 
these landmarks and find the exact designated 
square and the target within it. 

This true story illustrates how important it is 
to know ground scale: A group of flyers being 
trained in the U. S. in close air support were 
assigned a practice target—a group of buildings 
7000 yards in a given direction from certain out¬ 


standing landmarks. But they mistook the ground 
scale and bombed a target 7 miles away—which 
happened to be an important war plant. Fortun¬ 
ately their bombing was as bad as their map¬ 
reading and little damage was done. 

An aerial photograph is a good guide to the 
ground scale if it is gridded or if you know the 
scale. The ground scale of any vertical aerial pho¬ 
tograph can be computed easily from the focal 
length of the camera and the altitude at which it 
was taken, by this formula: 

Altitude in feet x 12 0 , 

———--- 7 — — Scale 

Focal length in inches 

For example, a photograph taken by a camera 
with a focal length of 12 inches at an altitude of 
1000 feet, has a scale of 1/1000. At 10,000 feet 
the scale is 1/10,000. A camera with a focal length 
of 24 inches, shooting at 1000 feet altitude, pro¬ 
duces a photograph with a scale of 1/500, and 
so on. 

Obstacles to Good Observation 

By this time you should be pretty well con¬ 
vinced that a good job of aerial observation in¬ 
volves something more than a casual tourist jaunt 
over an area. In fact, the margin between good 
and poor seeing is so small that you will be well 
ahead of the game to the extent that you remove 
any obstacles to good vision. 





CONFIDENTIAL 


35 








Glare is the most deadly enemy of efficient 
sight. You should make every effort to eliminate 
or reduce it. Glare is nothing more than more 
light than your eyes can handle, causing your 
seeing mechanism to stall. The overstimulation 
caused by glare can result in temporary blindness, 
confusion, and sometimes pain. 

The main point is to protect the eyes from all 
sources of overstimulation. Good sun glasses or 
goggles which cut down the total amount of light 
reaching the eyes, but still permit good vision, 
should be used whenever the sun is strong enough 
to cause eyestrain. Without glasses, or even with 
them, the eyes can be shielded from strong light 
by using the hand as a shield and looking between 
the fingers in the area of partial shadows along 
the edges of the fingers. By all means use good, 
well-ground glasses. Poor glasses make seeing more 
difficult. Color in glasses is not desirable for obser¬ 
vation work as it filters out certain color values 
and makes detection of camouflage difficult. 

Shiny surfaces on aircraft wings, cowling, instru¬ 
ment panel, and any other place, may cause glare. 
Much work has been done to cover all such sur¬ 
faces with non-reflecting paint. However, be alert 
to notice if any spots on the plane are causing re¬ 
flections, and if so, have them corrected. Although 
small glare spots may seem of minor importance, 
they add to eye fatigue and can seriously lower 
the effectiveness of observation in long searches. 

Other important sources of glare, too often 
overlooked, are dirt and scratches on glasses, 
goggles, and the glass and plexiglass of the canopy 
and windshield. You probably won't notice these 
defects until they are brought to your attention 
when flying into the sun or into searchlights or 
flood lamps, when the glare and dazzle they create 
may become critical. The presence of scratches 
and dirt on the windshield and canopy develops 
so gradually that you are not aware of the increas¬ 
ing loss of vision. Every effort should be made 
to keep the plexiglass and windshield cleaned and 
polished. Have damaged portions replaced as soon 
as possible. 

Recovery from glare takes time. Prolonged ex¬ 
posure to excessive light will cause you to lose 


ability to see . details in low light, thus reducing 
your night vision, even though the normal period 
of dark adaptation has been taken. These effects 
may last for several days, even though the eyes 
are rested. 

Fatigue from any and all causes impairs vision, 
particularly night vision, and usually without your 
knowledge. Search requires alertness over long 
periods. When your eyes get tired, you may strain 
them in trying to go on and do a normal job. 
When fatigued, attention may be maintained for 
a short emergency, but efficiency is lowered over 
the whole search or attack and you are likely to 
miss something significant. 

General fatigue also affects your sight because it 
makes it more difficult for you to keep your mind 
on the job, slows coordination, and causes poor 
judgment. Wherever possible, searches should be 
limited to periods that are not tiring. In larger 
planes the crew should be rotated frequently and, 
if possible, allowed short rest periods. 

Anoxia. Perhaps you remember the demonstra¬ 
tion in the low-pressure oxygen chamber—how 
everything became brighter as though someone 
had turned on the lights when oxygen was first 
administered after a partial ascent without oxygen. 
This indicates the vital part that oxygen plays in 
sight. 

Anoxia, or lack of oxygen, presents outstanding 
symptoms in reduced ability to see. When anoxia 
sets in, the eye becomes less perceptive of details 
and contrast, the total field of vision becomes 
reduced, less can be seen out of the corner of the 
eye, and everything becomes dimmer. Another 
serious result of anoxia is loss of the ability to 
concentrate. Finally, when in this dangerous con¬ 
dition, you—the victim—are completely happy and 
convinced you are alert and capable of meeting 
any situation. 

The dimming and dim-wit effect of anoxia is a 
terrific disadvantage in night attacks when the 
margin of seeing is small. At altitudes of more than 
5,000 feet, instrument markings seem dimmer. 
You begin to turn them up to see better. The 
more you turn them up, the less you can see out- 


36 


CONFIDENTIAL 


side the cockpit. At 18,000 feet your vision is 
practically shot, although you may not realize it. 

The preventive, of course, is oxygen. On night 
flights use oxygen from the ground up. Always 
follow the doctrine on oxygen use for day and 
night flying. Give yourself the breaks. 

Summary—Principles of Good Observation 

1. The “Mind’s Eye.” You see best the things 
you are prepared in your mind to see. Thus, 
you can improve your observation by studying 
maps, models, and photographs of the area 
to be covered, picking out what you are going 
to look for, what it looks like, and where you 
are likely to find it. 

2. How to Look. You see best only the things 
you look straight at, so use a definite pattern 
of scanning to be sure you cover all points in 
an area. Develop the pattern of scanning 
that suits you best. Keep your head moving 
when scanning. 

The corner of your eye is particularly sensi¬ 
tive to movement, although not to detail. 
When you spot movement out of the corner 
of the eye, scan or re-scan the area. 

It takes concentration to see things that 
are hard to see—as objects in shadows. Con¬ 
centrate your attention on levels where it is 
logical to find what you are looking for—as 
under trees. Don’t let your gaze drift to areas 
where it is easy to see but there is nothing 
to be seen. 

3. Make Use of Contrast. Vision is based on 
contrast between light and dark and between 
various hues of color. Make use of contrast 
to find things by their shadows or colors when 
the object itself may not be visible. Angle of 
light often makes difference in contrast. 
Some objects, as tanks, can be seen better 
looking up-light. Know how different surfaces 
appear up-light and down-light. 

4. Flash. Any flash of light denotes possible hu¬ 
man activity and should be investigated. 
Flash on ground may indicate enemy equip¬ 
ment or installations. Flash in sky usually is 
a sign of aircraft. Over sea, of course, flash 


may be signal of survivors, or from shipping. 

5. Texture. The character of the surface of 
objects determines how they reflect light 
and provides valuable clues to their identity. 
The enemy may be able to match colors but 
often cannot match the texture of real things 
in camouflage and dummies. 

6. Pattern. Objects that themselves can’t be 
seen often show up by characteristic pattern. 
Be alert to notice any patterns of straight 
lines, circles, rectangles, which indicate activ¬ 
ity of man. AA positions, fuel dumps, radio, 
radar, etc., alb have characteristic patterns. 

7. Discontinuity. Breaks in regular pattern of 
terrain, roads, colors, etc., should attract at¬ 
tention as they may indicate enemy activity. 

8. Movement. Check any movement that at¬ 
tracts your eye, as it may lead you to some¬ 
thing significant. Spotting movement of men 
or vehicles may disclose well-hidden instal¬ 
lations. 

9. Judging Size and Distance. Accurate estimate 
of size and distance of ground objects requires 
use of some reference object of known size. 
Distance can be estimated by “Bow and 
Beam” method, using speed of your plane 
to measure distance between given points. 
Ground scale can be determined by using 
gridded maps and prominent landmarks, or 
by use of fields, buildings, runways, etc., of 
known size. Aerial photos can be used to 
give size and distance if gridded or if scale of 
photograph is known or computed. 

10. Obstacles to Good Observation. The more 
you remove or avoid obstacles to effective 
observation, the more you will see. Glare is 
the most troublesome enemy of good vision 
and can lower your effective vision for several 
days. Glare can be avoided by use of good 
sun glasses or goggles, by use of non-reflecting 
paint on glare spots on plane. Dirty wind¬ 
shields and canopies are enemies of good 
vision, reducing efficiency by as much as a 
third or more. Fatigue and anoxia—lack of 
oxygen—also greatly lower effectiveness of 
vision seriously. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


37 


SECTION IV 
PREPARATION 
FOR SEARCH 

Briefing 

Thorough briefing is an essential part of any 
mission. It is likely that you will be briefed and 
all informational material on hand will be made 
available to .you before you go out on a search. 
Use every bit of it. Ask questions and study the 
areas to be searched. Every detail you add to 
your “mind’s eye” picture of the area will help 
you when you get in the air—and will help you 
to survive if you don’t stay in the air. 

However, you should realize that briefing has 
limitations. Sometimes it can deal only with the 
details of the specific mission, without opportunity 
to give you a lot of background information on the 
area in general. Or, it may be assumed that you 
have a good background knowledge of the general 
area and need only specific information on how 
the sortie at hand fits into the over-all plan of 
attack. 

It is up to you to fill in the picture as completely 
as possible. The time to prepare for searches or 
attacks is well before you fly them. Take time to 
familiarize yourself with everything the ACI officer 
has covered. Don’t wait to be told about the 
target area until just before the flight. Study 



You can do much to assure the success of 
your attack or search mission before you leave the 
ground. Indeed, if you don’t prepare yourself 
thoroughly for the job of seeing, you simply reduce 
your chances of doing a good job—and of getting 
back with the dope. 


38 


CONFIDENTIAL 








Makada I 


Watom 


True North 
Var.6 # 50'E. 


K ore re ■' 


Laveo Pt 


CRATER 

PENINSULA 

IfNordut)' 


Cape Liguan 


'owanumbatir 


9o 

Ltguan 

i4ioji5 


RABAUL^ 

? Simpson 
Hbr 

, 

'Bridge PtM 

\ . y 

vBeeh-ves \ 


iMt Kcmbiu 


Wunawatung 
Kurakakaul Ptn.^ 


.akunai'A*rfield 


^Mt. Tavurvur 741 

Turanguna 1621 

J'Praed Pt , 


Kabakon I 


'Wataur 


•/Kambeira 


'Vulcao Crater 

. blanche bay 


Tavilo Ptn. v '%<" 


Keravt’a 


Raluana Pt 


Keravia Bay 


^ Raluana 
j^Malapau 


Wurawunka 


’T' Keravat Airfield 
•Keravat \ 


i. Raliliei t 


Cape 

Gazelle 


<? J V/Kunai 

S • ' 

Vunakahau Airfield *‘u}y■ 4 

—cocr -1 s' 

^^Malabonga 


Tama'ili 


Rapito., ^ 

.•%,/ Tomavalur 

/ V <S.4 Toma Ptn> 

/ Mission y 

/ / IDump)^ 


Ramai^Ptf 


Kimgunan 

Ptn 1 ./' 


r Bulung 

Ptn 


|3i).j{ Ulatava Ptn 

V) Maiakuna-*''''^ 


Gunamur Ptn. 
Bita ^aka Aw.T^ 


Makurapau Ptn. 


Tobera Ptn, 


Caulim 


Kabangs Ptn 


Rabata 


yVarangoi 


NEW BRITAIN ISLAND 


^ fashed lines give magnetic course to tar*;* • 


Searchlights 
'W AA areas 


j not shown on target £harts 


N. A c. I.— HydfOfi'aphiC OMtee 
W^vhi^aton. D. C 


No. 12-1 21 ]A 


TARGET MAP of Rabaul area. 


the general geography of the region and photos of 
enemy installations while there is plenty of time 
to get the details firmly implanted in your mind. 

Aids to Search Preparation 

Map Reading. This is more than a simple mat¬ 
ter of being able to read a map. Effective map 
reading is an art developed by long study, plus 
lots of practice and experience in using maps. 


While you are flying the plane you won’t have 
time to follow the map continuously. You have to 
.be prepared to pick up your position at any odd 
time, on short notice. You really have to know 
your map. 

Ground maps for bombardment, approach, and 
close air support are prepared on polyconic pro¬ 
jections which permit the use of a scale of distance 
or “grid” applicable to any portion of the map. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


39 



































This grid may be printed on the map, or it may 
be in the form of a standard transparent overlay on 
which the grid scale has been printed. Standard 
scales of ground maps are: One unit of length on 
the map equals 25,000 units of length on the 
ground (1:25,000) or multiples of 25,000. Standard 
air-support maps usually are made up on 8" x 8" 
sheets, stapled together in booklets so they can be 
slipped into the chart-folders provided in carrier 
planes. These air-support maps usually are in scale 
of 1:50,000, although for particular areas where 
close detail is highly important, they may be in 
1:25,000 scale. 

The first step in reading a map is to learn the 
meanings of all the symbols so well that you 
instantly visualize the appearance of the terrain 
and the objects depicted. If you don’t “read” the 
symbols as easily as you read the words in this 
sentence, you are missing valuable information 
that can help you do an intelligent job of “seeing” 
the area. Check the notes, symbols, scales, type 
of contour markings, and the orientation of the 
map. 

Presumably in preparing you for a mission you 
will be given the best map available. However, 
any map is a compromise. There is a limit to the 
information that can be presented while still keep¬ 
ing the map readable. So, in your own study of 
general information on the area, look up all the 
maps available and compare the various scales, 
amounts of detail, and the landmark features you 
may expect to recognize in flight. A table of map 
symbols appears in appendix B. Learn them! 

The second point to keep in mind is that a 
map is a view which shows each and every detail 
as though it were seen from a point directly above. 
Naturally, your view is directly above only one 
point at a time; all others are seen at various an¬ 
gles. This means that most features of the land¬ 
scape will be distorted, as compared to the map, 
except the points directly below. This isn’t any 
problem if you practice by checking ground fea¬ 
tures against the map and note how they appear 
to change as you fly over them. 

A third step in map reading involves planning 
your flight in advance to locate landmarks to ex¬ 



pect at various stages of your flight, and the pos¬ 
sible landmarks to expect if you get off the planned 
path to either side. Such precautions may save you 
much search time when you are uncertain of your 
position. When the weather closes in, pin-point 
observations of expected landmarks may be of crit¬ 
ical significance in maintaining position. 

A fourth step is fitting the ground to the map. 
It is extremely easy to make errors in identifying 
a single landmark. If you mistake one land feature 
for another, and consequently assume a false lo¬ 
cation, your whole flight may be thrown far off 
course. Consider this pilot’s report: “I figured that 
we were just to the north of Saint Isabel, so I set 
my course to take us across the field (Henderson 
field at Guadalcanal). It happened that instead of 
Isabel we were off Malaita . . .” This pilot was 
lucky. He was found and fished out of the sea just 
two days after he dunked. 


40 


CONFIDENTIAL 





Such errors in observation can be prevented by 
making the ground fit the map, not vice versa. To 
fit the ground to the map requires that several 
features in combination match the map; one land 
feature must be corroborated by others. In each 
of the foregoing steps familiarity with the map 
through careful study is the key to effective use of 
the map during flight. 

Aerial Photographs 

In contrast to planned views of maps, aerial 
photographs show the terrain as it actually appears 
to the eye. However, such photographs present so 
much detail in “frozen” form that they require 
expert interpretation to tell the complete story. 


Photographic interpretation is a highly devel¬ 
oped technique for which specialists have been 
trained. However, a general knowledge of photo 
interpretation is essential for pilots, and it is im¬ 
portant to realize that interpretation of photos 
provides many types of worthwhile information. 
Consult your photo interpretation officer freely. 

How to Study Photos. One of the best methods 
of becoming thoroughly familiar with the charac¬ 
teristics of aerial photos is to study them until you 
can “read” them easily. Start with aerial views of 
scenes with which you are familiar, showing ob¬ 
jects as viewed from various altitudes; starting, 
for example, at 1000 feet, and then from 5000 
feet, 10,000 and so on. 



LOW OBLIQUES show objects in perspective as they appear from certain approaches. 
They often reveal things that would not be readily visible from a vertical view, such as 
the low, well-sheltered pillbox along the beach at the lower right. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


41 



VERTICAL PHOTOGRAPHS usually reveal more detail than maps and models, as shown in 
this vertical "shot" of the Rabaul area taken from 27,000 feet altitude. 


Second, photos should be scanned. This can be 
done by using a mask—a piece of paper with a 
one-inch square hole cut in it—which is moved 
across the photo so that each small portion is 
studied methodically. 


Oblique Photographs 

These show the landscape in perspective as it 
appears from the direction and height at which the 
picture was taken. In approaches from angles 
other than that of the particular oblique, the 


42 


CONFIDENTIAL 




photo may be of less value. However, a series of 
such photos of a given area from different direc¬ 
tions and altitudes enables you to appraise the 
various approaches in planning attacks and to get 
a comprehensive understanding of how the area 
looks to the eye. 

Vertical Photographs 

Taken from directly above the area, with the 
camera pointed straight down, vertical photos can 
be matched into a carefully controlled mosaic 
photograph, which shows a great amount of detail 
and, for special purposes, frequently is of more 
value than a map. 

Stereoscopic Paired Photographs 

These are paired photos of an area taken from 
the same height at a known distance apart. When 
combined through stereoscopic viewers, the over¬ 
lap of the two pictures reproduces the effect of 
depth in the scene and often "brings out” a great 
amount of detail that is not otherwise visible. 

Color Photographs 

Because of the difficulty in producing large 
numbers of prints, these are in limited use, but 
they have the great advantage of showing the 
scene as it looks to the eye with much detail and 
realism that is lacking in black and white pic¬ 
tures. Color gives considerable increase in the 
depth of the image in stereo pairs. The additional 
contrast provided by the hues and shades of color 
make it possible to discover things that an ordi¬ 
nary black and white print may not reveal. 

Experts in photo interpretation usually are 
available to analyze reconnaissance photographs. 
However, you must sight, recognize, and hit the 
ground targets and positions which have been 
made familiar to you through the maps and 
photographs with which you have been briefed. 
After a strike, you can help the photo interpreter 
later by giving him information, firsthand, about 
the target, which will aid him in filling out his 
analysis of the post-attack pictures of the area. 
Cooperation here is mutually advantageous. 


Infrared Photographs 

Photographs taken on film that registers only 
the reflections of infrared rays are valuable for cer¬ 
tain special purposes. They register various shades 
of gray, but the lightness or darkness of objects 
depicted depends on the manner in which they 
reflect the infrared rays. Certain trees, for ex¬ 
ample, reflect much of this type of light and thus 
appear light in the photograph. Most artificial ma¬ 
terials reflect little infrared light and thus record 
dark tones—a valuable clue for locating camouflage 
where artificial materials are used. Infrared also 
pierces through a great deal of haze and can be 
used to get views of areas where haze is too great 
to permit ordinary film to record clearly. 

Terrain Models 

A terrain model is a three-dimensional view of 
an area in miniature. It is a synthesis of all known 
and assumed facts about a particular objective, 
revealing natural landmarks and relationships of 
various portions of the area in distance, altitude, 
and slope. It can be studied directly, can be pho¬ 
tographed either by still or motion picture cam¬ 
eras from the same angle of approach as the pro¬ 
posed mission, and can be shown under simulated 
conditions of varying weather. 

The Japs carried small models of Pearl Harbor 
in their bombers when they attacked December 7, 
1941, evidence that the plans for that action had 
been long in the making. We now have the fa¬ 
cilities for making much better models in short 
time right near the scene of action. 

High-level Models 

These provide the pilot with the general ap¬ 
pearance of the terrain of the target area. The 
landmarks as shown on these models give the pilot 
an exact "mind’s eye” view of how the target is 
aligned with surrounding terrain and can be used 
to plan the approach to the target. Such models 
also are valuable in survival intelligence, and study 
may assist the pilot in recognizing landmarks from 
the ground in case he is forced down. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


43 



THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELS are one of the best means of preparing the "mind's eye" 
for a target area, showing in miniature exactly how it will look. 



A HIGH-LEVEL MODEL of Rabaul area, including Simpson Harbor and Blanche Bay, helped 
our flyers to smash the Jap's power there. This model is on the scale of 1/10,500. 


44 


CONFIDENTIAL 






Target Models 

For orientating flyers in strafing, dive and glide 
bombing, rocketing, and low-level missions, target 
models are useful. The details of such models in¬ 
clude buildings, defense installations, and possible 
shipping and are used for individual target desig¬ 
nation. They are particularly valuable in case cer¬ 
tain key buildings in an industrial complex are to 
be bombed to tie up the entire industry. 

A famous example of the use of target models 
was the precision bombing of specific portions of 
a prison wall at Amiens. It was desired to breach 
the wall and the building to liberate French pa¬ 
triots from the Germans, yet an error of a few 
yards would kill the very prisoners it was planned 
to free. By following the attack plan preciselv, all 
bombs were accurately placed and the Frenchmen 
were freed. 

Assault Models 

These are used in planning amphibious landing 
operations and also for spotting fire and in close 
air support. The detail of such models must be 
highly accurate to permit precise coordination of 
land, sea, and air attacks. 

Models can post you on how to avoid moun¬ 
tains and other obstacles in low approaches, to 
dodge enemy radar, and to demonstrate how the 
terrain will appear at different times of the day 
or seasons of the year. In operational experience 
it has been stated repeatedly that accurate three- 
dimensional models are the most valuable single 
aid in making pilots familiar with a given area 
before they have flown over it. However, all 
sources of information are important—maps, pho¬ 
tos, models. Your chances of an effective attack 
are best if you use them all. 

Prepare Your Equipment 

Your visual equipment, as well as your mind, 
has to be prepared for the mission to produce the 
best results. Good equipment, in good working 
order, aids vision; equipment in poor order is 
almost certain to lower your clarity of observation. 

Clean That Windshield! 

From an operational report: “One day, near 


the end of a combat patrol flight, a fighter pilot 
saw two planes in the distance. Knowing that 
they could only be enemy, he signaled his wing- 
man and gave chase. He was unable to close 
range, however, and was almost out of gas before 
he discovered the two enemy planes were just dirt 
specks on his windshield!” 

Any operational flying involves plenty of dirt, 
and more than an occasional wipe with a cloth 
is needed to get it off the windshield. The gradual 
accumulation of a screen of dirt in front of your 
eyes is very deceptive; your vision may be reduced 
30 percent or more without your knowledge. 

The plane captain is responsible for certifying 
that the plane is ready for flight and this should 
include clean windshield and hood. However, it 
is the pilot’s responsibility to insist that this clean¬ 
liness be maintained at all times—it is his safety 
and efficiency that are at stake. 

Proper cleaning methods are important. Plexi¬ 
glass is relatively soft and is scratched easily, and 
the windshield is more susceptible to scratches 
than is commonly supposed. Scratches, even ones 
that you can’t see, tend to diffuse the light and 
cut down visibility. Polishing and waxing are essen¬ 
tial to fill in the scratches, eliminate diffusion, and 
protect the surface against further marring. Make 
it a point to require your plane captain to see that 
the canopy and panels are cleaned, waxed, and 
polished. 

Overoiling the guns means that excess oil will 
splatter and the resulting smoke may foul the 
plexiglass panels of the turret or windshield. 

Use Goggles and Glasses 

The principal thing to keep in mind about sun 
glasses or goggles is this: If you wear them, keep 
them clean and unscratched. Otherwise they will 
reduce your vision seriously. 

Goggles are used for a combination of pur¬ 
poses—for protection against wind, dust, and fire— 
but their aid, like sun glasses, is mainly to protect 
your eyes from strong light by means of pigments 
in the glass or plastic which reduces the amount 
of light admitted, reducing the strain and fatigue 
of the eyes. However, the pigments in the glass 


CONFIDENTIAL 


45 


also cut down the ability to see distant objects 
when the general level of light is low. So, when 
protection from dust and wind is not a problem, 
and there is no chance of glare, don’t wear sun 
glasses or goggles. 

The Navy, after considerable research, has deter¬ 
mined that neutral gray tint in sun glasses is 
superior to other colors, and observers are now 
issued special plastic goggles with gray lens. 

Polarized lens are particularly helpful in cut¬ 
ting down polarized light rays reflected from water. 
Strong glare from this source is one of the most 
common causes of rapid eye fatigue. This type of 
lens also increases the contrast of small objects 
on the water, such as life rafts, small boats, and 
survivors in dye slicks. However, there is no good 
proof that polaroid glasses provide appreciable 
aid in detecting submerged objects. During air 
combat the protective effect of polarized lenses 
is lost due to the rapid changes of your position 
in relation to the light direction. 

Binoculars 

Like sun glasses or goggles, binoculars are an aid 
that should be taken along on a search, but should 
be used only under the proper circumstances. 

An attempt to search with binoculars from an 
airplane causes considerable eyestrain because of 
the vibration and the restriction of the visual 
field. However, after spotting an object, binocu¬ 
lars can “bring it up” to aid in identification and 
in determining detail. 

At night binoculars are a distinct aid. Where 
the naked eye can distinguish only the exhaust 
of an aircraft at night, the same plane seen 
through binoculars shows up in full silhouette. 

Summary—Preparation for Search 

1. Briefing. Thorough preparation through use of 
briefing information and aids is essential to 
prepare “mind’s eye” conception of area. A 
pilot who takes his briefing seriously, who sup¬ 
plements it with all available information has 
a much better chance of spotting targets, and 
a better chance of surviving if forced down 
on a mission. 


2. Aids to Search Preparation. 

a. Map Reading. First step, be sure you know 
the meaning of all symbols, check notes, 
scale, types of contours, and the orientation. 
Second, get relationships of landmarks in 
mind by checking ground features. Third, 
plan flight to locate landmarks at various 
stages of flight, including those to either 
side of planned course. Fourth, fit ground 
to map, not vice versa; be sure one land 
feature is corroborated by others on map. 

b. Aerial Photos. Study interpretations of ae¬ 
rial photographs of area to become familiar 
with approaches, appearance of landfalls 
and landmarks, patterns made by installa¬ 
tions in area, etc. Oblique photos are par¬ 
ticularly good for approaches, vertical photos 
for fine detail, stereoscopic pairs for contour 
and general layout of terrain and particularly 
for locating hidden targets. 

c. Terrain Models. These three dimensional 
views of areas in miniature are consid¬ 
ered valuable for acquainting pilots with 
what a target area is going to look like from 
any approach and under various conditions. 
High-level models are used in planning gen¬ 
eral approaches. Target models are used in 
orientating flyers for strafing, dive bombing, 
glide bombing, rocketing, and other low- 
level missions. Assault models are used in 
planning amphibious landings, have accu¬ 
rate detail in fairly large scale. 

3. Prepare Your Equipment. Good equipment, 
in good condition, aids aerial observation; 
equipment in poor order is a definite handicap. 
Dirty and scratched windshields are serious 
hazards. Pilots should require plane captains to 
see that windshields and canopies are cleaned, 
polished, and waxed. Overoiling guns may foul 
plexiglass panels, or the windshield. Sun 
glasses or goggles, if worn, should be clean; 
otherwise they reduce vision seriously. Neutral 
gray tint in sun glasses or goggles is preferred. 
Binoculars aid search, particularly at night, but 
should be used only to “bring up” objects, 
not to scan for them. 


46 


CONFIDENTIAL 


SECTION V 

MAKING THE SEARCH 



Planning and Coordination 

There is a legend about an ancient cathedral 
that had a remarkable window. It was so thick, 
that window, that two men were required to see 
through it. While this story is undoubtedly true 
(sic), it is all the more true that the more people 
you have helping you see from the air, the more 
you will observe—if the search is carefully planned 
and the observation duties are coordinated. 

A definite search plan should be worked out in 
advance of an operation. Everybody on a search 
or attack should have specific responsibilities for 
observation, whether in the same or in different 
planes. Each member of a search should be as¬ 


signed primary responsibility for a particular sec¬ 
tor. The smaller the sector that one man has to 
scan, the better he can cover it. Two fighter pilots 
flying in section can search the air better if they 
divide it into equal sectors and cooperate on its 
coverage. In large planes, a specific portion of the 
field should be assigned to each crew member, the 
portion depending on the man’s position in the 
plane. Whenever possible, overlapping sectors 
should be assigned so that at least two men cover 
each portion of the field as a double check. 

Men with the best searching ability and most 
experience should be put in the key positions. In 
land and sea search the positions having the best 
forward and downward view are the most impor¬ 
tant. The principal stations for searching the air 
are the top turret, the tail turret, and frequently 
the waist position. 

It will pay dividends in alertness and keenness 
to rotate men from one station to another with 
some rest time in between, if possible. On long 
flights the boredom and monotony of many hours 
at the same station may seriously reduce the level 
of perception. Any opportunity to give the search¬ 
ers a change and some sack time will cut down the 
tendency to fall asleep on watch or to stare blankly 
into space. Maintaining watch from any one po¬ 
sition for more than an hour results in loss of at¬ 
tention unless some new stimulation is introduced 
to promote alertness. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


47 





It’s easy to say that you should keep alert—but 
sometimes when the search is getting terribly dull, 
you are going to have to keep a close check on 
yourself to keep from doping off. It may help if 
you remind yourself that an enemy fighter’s great¬ 
est tactical advantage is surprise. Too many com¬ 
bat reports read—and too many would read if 
someone had been able to write them—“My first 
warning of the approach of enemy planes was a 
burst of tracer going by . . .” 


\ 



It is the patrol plane commander’s duty to have 
a definite policy worked out for the most efficient 
crew search, and for developing and maintaining 
good crew discipline and spirit. A number of de¬ 
vices have been found effective in keeping the 
crew alert. For example, the pilot should check 
with each man on the interphone at irregular in¬ 
tervals. Strip maps can be provided crew members 
so they can call off landmarks and check points as 
they are first seen. This makes each crew member 
feel that he is taking an active part in the mission. 


In some cases the pilot keeps a record of the 
location of previous actions and these are called off 
to the crew as they are sighted. It should be 
standard policy that anything observed that is or 
seems to be out of the ordinary should be reported. 
When the pilot observes something significant 
that was not reported by the crewman responsible 
for that sector, he should call it to the crewman’s 
attention. 

There is a natural letdown near the end of long 
and dangerous flights, and, unless guarded against, 
this can result in surprise attacks or in overlooking 
something significant. In one case, a group of 
fighter planes were celebrating the end of a tough 
flight by some improvised flat-hatting as they came 
into the home stretch. They were so intent on 
this sport that they failed to notice a group of Japs 
who sneaked in at low level in the dusk and 
strafed the field. Rather than allow the whole 
crew—or yourself—to “let down” on return trips, 
the pilot should recognize the need for relaxation 
and assign certain crewmen to be on the alert 
while others relax. When entering a danger zone 
or encountering any sign of activity, the entire 
crew should be called to attention for search. 

The mere fact that there is a known plan of 
watch-keeping will be of value. When a man 
knows he has definite relief scheduled, he will be 
more effective while on duty than if his attention 
is scattered over a long, indefinite period. 

Planned cooperation between pilots can be very 
helpful. For example, when two or more planes 
are searching along a river or a ridge, it should be 
known which pilot is going to take which side. 
Along a river, objects concealed under the trees 
along the banks can be seen best from low angle. 
When two planes are patrolling in a stream it is 
most effective for the pilot on the right to search 
the left-hand bank, while the pilot on the left 
searches the right-hand bank. In some cases, when 
understanding between pilots was incomplete, it 
has happened that both concentrated on one sec¬ 
tor, or on some obvious part of the field, and both 
were surprised from an unguarded sector. This 
sort of thing can be very discouraging. 


48 


CONFIDENTIAL 








\ l 



There’s no argument about the importance of 
seeing the enemy first, whether you’re on an offen¬ 
sive or defensive operation. The trick—as has been 
pointed out—is how. If you train your eyes for 
good air search, you will be safer both over enemy 
territory and your own base. Your chances of col¬ 
lecting rising-sun flags on your fuselage will be 
much improved. 

What to Look For 

Many suggestions on the technique of seeing 
other planes in the air have come from the expe¬ 
rience of combat squadrons, and almost all seem 
to agree on the importance of training your eyes 
to be alert to any movement, change, contrast, 
shadow, or flash, and to scan carefully, particularly 
in areas of the sky where seeing is difficult, as, into 
the sun and under dark clouds. 

Watch for shadows. Take the case of the pilot 
who noticed a slight movement on a cloud and 
persisted in studying it until he realized that it was 
a moving shadow. He knew that it wasn’t his own. 
Light and haze conditions made observation very 
difficult, but by persistence he was able to deter¬ 
mine where the other plane should be from the 


angle of the sun. By concentrated scanning of the 
area he was able to find it—an enemy snooper— 
to surprise it, and shoot it down. He made use 
of several principles of good observation to track 
down a difficult target. 

Low-flying planes sometimes can be observed by 
their shadows on the ground when they are other¬ 
wise hidden from your direct view, as when clouds, 
or the blind areas on your own plane conceal them. 
One pilot was coming in for a landing and casually 
looked at the shadow his own plane was making. 
He was electrified to notice two shadows. Another 
plane was landing right on top of him. He gave 
his plane the gun and cleared out, saved from an 
almost certain crash by the sight of the shadow. 

Distance. The greatest distance at which other 
aircraft can be seen has been the subject of much 
conversation but is no nearer solution. There is 
no simple answer. Practically speaking, you have 
to take into account (1) weather and lighting; 
(2) size and outstanding characteristics of the air¬ 
craft; (3) the aspect angle or attitude in which the 
plane is viewed; (4) the contrast of the background 
with the plane; (5) the attention and skill of the 


SHADOW on a cloud may betray the pres¬ 
ence of a plane when you can't see the 
plane itself. Scan clouds carefully. 



CONFIDENTIAL 


49 



VAPOR TRAILS often can be seen against the sky when the planes that cause 

them are not visible. 




LIGHT BACKGROUND of clouds and angle of sun create much contrast, 
make planes easy to see. 


50 


CONFIDENTIAL 




observer; (6) effect of haze; (7) the use of visual 
aids; and (8) the condition of your glasses, goggles, 
windshield and canopy. 

Under the heading of movement and contrast 
are vapor trails. They are very obvious, but unless 
you are alert you may easily mistake a vapor trail 
for a cloud. The best time to spot such a trail is 
when it is forming, as it combines movement and 
change at this period. 

Aircraft which are out of sight behind clouds 
may reveal their presence to a keen observer by the 
shadows against otherwise fixed patterns of the 
terrain. Bright surfaces of the clouds make excel¬ 
lent backgrounds for revealing aircraft by contrast. 
Clouds should be scanned carefully with this in 
mind. 

One of the common strategies since air war be¬ 
gan is to attack or track from a position in the sun. 
So the sun area becomes the most dangerous area, 
and it is the hardest to search. Sun glasses and 
some special devices may be used to advantage, if 
available, but if you don’t have them, the sun 
can be scanned effectively by looking through the 
cracks of your fingers when they are almost closed. 

Any glitter or flash in the sky is an almost cer¬ 
tain indication of aircraft, and should be investi¬ 
gated at once. 

When something is spotted in the air, binocu¬ 
lars may be used to advantage in revealing detail 
for recognition. However, when attempting to rec¬ 
ognize one object don’t overlook the need to con¬ 
tinue to search all of the other areas. This one 
plane may be a decoy. Even if it isn’t a baited 
trap, the presence of one enemy aircraft frequently 
indicates that others may be around. 

Persistence and curiosity pay off very hand¬ 
somely in the air—in fact, this can be taken as one 
of the basic principles of success. Your eyes may 
be attracted by some motion so faint, or shadow or 
flash so slight, that you really can’t be sure you saw 
anything. Yet in many cases a persistent scanning 
of sky and cloud may yield a sign of an enemy— 
and give you the advantage of seeing him first. 

CONFIDENTIAL 



SEA SEARCH 

Search over water includes antisubmarine pa¬ 
trol, search for enemy warships and shipping, res¬ 
cue work, and finding your ship when you return 
to base. All previous discussion applies equally 
well to sea search. In addition, there are many 
special problems. Don’t kid yourself, sea search 
can be plenty tough. 

Altitudes 

The altitude of sea search is controlled and lim¬ 
ited to a great extent by navigational difficulties. 
An airplane on extended flight over water must 
depend on surface wind conditions for navigation 
unless a drift sight is used. Therefore, most small 
aircraft, without drift sights, will search relatively 
low, while the larger planes can use higher alti¬ 
tudes if desired. In general, because of haze and 
average sea conditions, about 500 to 1000 feet is 
satisfactory, both from a navigational and visual 
point of view, although this varies according to the 
weather and the policies of different squadrons. 

Altitude also depends on what you are looking 
for. In hunting for large objects, such as ships, 
higher altitudes may be used to enable scanning 
of large fields of vision. Experience has shown 

51 


that altitudes from 1,000—5,000 feet may be prac¬ 
tical for shipping search, provided you have the 
proper navigational aids. 

It should always be kept in mind, however, that 
you must be able to see clearly the smallest object 
for which the search is being made. Over the sea 
the lower limit of visibility is deceptive—you may 
think you can see a man or a small piece of wreck¬ 
age in the water from 1,500 feet, when under 
average conditions of visibility you can’t. 

The eye clues on the sea may be in the form of 
movement, contrast, color or discontinuity, which 
may make themselves felt to the eye before you 
can actually see the object itself. 

Watch for Wakes 

Ships’ wakes often are more visible than the 
ships themselves—or often they may lead you to 
what you are seeking. During the first strike on 
the then mysterious Jap base at Truk, our powerful 
task force was disappointed by the lack of the ex¬ 
pected number of warships in the famous lagoon. 
Where were they? One flyer noticed a streak in 
the water, an oil slick, an old wake, leading out to 


sea. By following this faint trail for 28 miles he 
found some of the escaping enemy ships, including 
a cruiser and two destroyers. He radioed their 
position to our task force, which caught and sank 
the fleeing ships. 

The white part of the wake, as well as the long 
straight or curved path of the ship, contrast both 
as to light and dark, and furthermore break the 
pattern of the surface of the sea. Any streaks may 
lead to ships that are out of sight. This is particu¬ 
larly true of submarines running afloat, as their 
small dark superstructures are much less conspicu¬ 
ous than the long thin white wake they make. A 
submarine wake looks like a long white cap which 
doesn’t go away, and you may or may not be able 
to see the black dot on one end. When just sub¬ 
merging, the swirl of water around a sub may be 
very conspicuous. Similarly, oil slicks or debris 
may indicate the presence of shipping or subma¬ 
rines. In more than one case, persistent circling of 
an oil slick has revealed a submarine that had been 
damaged and was leaking oil, and has resulted in 
tallying another permanently submerged enemy 
sub on our records. 


OLD WAKES or oil slicks are valuable clues in sea search and may lead you 
many miles to enemy or friendly ships. 



52 


CONFIDENTIAL 





THE FEATHER WAKE of a periscope is small but contrasts definitely with the surface of a 
sea. It can easily be mistaken for a whitecap, but it persists longer and may run in a 

different direction. 


SWIRLS made by subs when surfacing or crash diving are very conspicuous by the 
contrast of white water against the sea surface. 



CONFIDENTIAL 


53 



WAKES are easier to see than the ships that make them. Cover the wakes in this photo¬ 
graph and note that the ships are almost completely blended with the surface. 


54 


CONFIDENTIAL 






PLANE CHANGES ALTITUDE TO SHIFT RELATIVE POSITION OF HORIZON 










Silhouettes Stand Out 

The value of contrast is most obvious in sil¬ 
houetting of ships above the horizon to reveal 
their presence when they otherwise would remain 
invisible to your prying eyes. When practical, you 
should change altitude occasionally at a gradual 
rate and concentrate on the horizon in the hope of 
seeing ships contrast with the sky as the relative 
position of the horizon changes. Similarly, the 
contrast of smoke against a lighter sky may reveal 
the presence of shipping long before you can make 
out the ships themselves. 


Flashes are so conspicuous and can be seen from 
long distances so easily that a great deal of effort 
is used to prevent them. The enemy paints his 
ships with dull and dark paint to reduce their 
contrast with the sea surface, and he covers all 
brightwork. Even so, it is difficult to control every 
surface on a ship that may produce a flash, so be 
alert for this kind of “sign” and track any flash 
down to its origin. It may be just a reflection on 
the water, but it also may very well be an 
enemy ship. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


55 







ALTITUDE AT WHICH SURVIVORS CAN BE SEEN 


5000 


1 


Fir 

- 1000 TO 
2000 FT. 


FlY 

— 1000 TO 
5000 FT. 



SURVIVOR WITHOUT 
RAFT OR DYE MARKER. 


SURVIVORS WITH RAFT BUT 
WITHOUT DYE MARKER. 


SURVIVORS WITH RAFT 
AND DYE MARKER. 


SURVIVORS WITH RAFT, 
D.YE MARKER, AND 
SIGNALING EQUIPMENT. 


Color Counts 

Color differences often give away an enemy or 
lead to the discovery of survivors’ rafts. A yellow 
raft shows up well, as does the bright green of 
marker dye. The Coast Guard has worked out the 
following table on altitudes of flight in searching 
for survivors, relative to color values, signaling 
equipment, etc. 

1. If survivors are without raft or dye marker, 
fly below 500 feet. 

2. If survivors are in raft, but without dye 
marker or signaling equipment, fly at 500 to 
1,000 feet. 

3. If survivors are equipped with dye marker, 
fly at 1,000 to 2,000 feet. 


4. If survivors are equipped with signaling 
equipment and/or radar reflector, fly at 
1,000 to 5,000 feet. 

These figures are based on the best sighting dis¬ 
tances known for the various situations under good 
visibility. If you have no information as to the 
equipment of the survivors or if visibility is poor, 
the altitude of search should be as low as necessary 
to see the smallest object under the prevailing 
weather conditions. 

Green dye marker is particularly easy to see 
when it is between the observer and the sun and 
after it has had time to spread out. 

White smoke is very easy to see during the day, 
as it contrasts with both the sea and the sky. The 


56 


CONFIDENTIAL 












yellow balloon on the antenna of the Gibson Girl 
radio greatly aids in spotting survivors from the 
air. Flashes from a signaling mirror are very 
effective, as they carry for many miles, but it may 
be difficult for survivors in a raft or life belts to 
keep the mirror aimed at you. 

Keep Low 

Keep in mind when searching for small objects, 
such as men in the water, that increasing your 
altitude doesn’t necessarily enlarge the field over 
which you can see effectively. It may reduce it. 
As you go higher the slant range to objects on the 
surface increases rapidly and you may easily exceed 
the height at which you can distinguish a small 
boat, raft, or a man in the water, even when almost 
below you. 

Objects in the area close to your plane in slant 
range are the easiest to see because of nearness, 
less chance of haze, and a minimum hiding effect 
of the waves. Most of your contacts will be made 


fairly close and out to the front of your flight path. 

Naturally, the rougher the water, the lower the 
altitude from which you can find a small object; 
also the lower you are, the slower you must fly 
if you are to scan the sea surface carefully. 

Remember This! 

We’d like to bring up an old point once more. 
Sure—alertness! When you have a tendency to 
dope off, tt) get fat, dumb and happy during a sea 
search, just put yourself in the place of the guys 
who may be down there in the water. Remember 
how often survivors have reported that a number 
of planes flew near or over them without sighting 
them, despite the frantic efforts of the survivors to 
attract attention. That should keen you up. 

Once you have located a survivor, you may lose 
him again unless you mark the spot closely. Circle 
at low altitude to retain visual contact; radio the 
position, if possible. Drop smoke grenades, flares, 
or dye marker. 



LIFE RAFTS are so small that, despite color contrast, they 
cannot be seen from high altitudes. Search planes must 

fly low. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


57 




Land search is a constant struggle between you 
and the enemy. As most of the enemy’s strength 
is now on land, it’s a vital one. He’s trying hardest 
to hide the very things you are most eager to find 
and attack. The vast mass of detail, changing 
appearance of the land from place to place, and 
the opportunities for natural camouflage all make 
your mission more difficult to carry out. 

The closely related problem of locating and 
identifying designated ground targets for strikes 
and close air support will be discussed a bit later. 
First, let’s talk generally about finding things on 
land. 

Special Techniques 

Finding, bombing, rocketing, and strafing jungle- 
obscured targets from low levels while subject to 
possible ground fire is a continual problem where 
land operations are concerned. It isn’t easy to 
learn to observe well under these conditions, and 
fighter-bomber pilots new to this type of operation 
may require conscientious practice to get the 
knack. 

While searching jungle terrain, scan a large area 
rather than concentrating on small successive 


patches and, while scanning, watch out for any¬ 
thing unusual or out of the ordinary—anything 
that breaks the general pattern, or contrasts in 
light and dark or in color. As soon as you see any 
signs of irregularity, circle the spot and give it a 
thorough looking-over. It may be necessary to 
circle several times to see just what first attracted 
your attention. 

Familiarize yourself with the general appearance 
of typical jungle terrain, native villages, clearings, 
streams, trails and beaches. Repeated flights over 
the same area will gradually build up a good back¬ 
ground and will enable you to pick up any changes 
quickly. Activities which don’t appear unusual 
at first, may show up in striking contrast when 
viewed repeatedly. As stated in a report from 
Morotai: 

“The facility with which most of the pilots 
are able to pick over an area after they have 
flown over it a couple of times is amazing. 
The focusing of the eyes beyond the tree- 
tops and the utilizing of the light filtering 
through the trees is quickly accomplished and 
targets not otherwise discernible are dis¬ 
covered." 

As stated in this report, and many times con¬ 
firmed, one of the great needs of jungle search is 
to focus the attention at the base of the trees— 
not at their tops! Unless you develop this method 
of search, you will be fooled by the natural camou¬ 
flage of the seemingly almost solid jungle. 

Flying technique also is altered by the neces¬ 
sities of jungle search. It is necessary, usually, to 
fly out to one side of whatever you wish to see. 
When searching along a road, track, or stream, 
you can look under the trees along one side by 
flying low along the other side. If there are two 
planes, both sides can be investigated at the same 
time in this manner. 

Sometimes it is necessary to fly directly over 
an area to see the ground vertically between the 
trees. The best method is to make definite “S” 
turns along the line of observation. This has the 
added advantage of making the plane a poor target 
for any enemy ground fire. 

Trees over one hundred feet high and thick 


58 


CONFIDENTIAL 






WATCH FOR CONTRAST of clearings under frees which often show up as much lighter 
than the surrounding ground. Supply dumps and other installations often can be found by 

being alert to contrast of this type. 


undergrowth make observation very difficult and 
at times seemingly impossible. However, if you 
get the best angle, it is surprising how much can 
be detected. An angle of 45° or slightly less has 
been found to be best for small clearings or breaks 
in the jungle, as this allows you to see between 
the trunks of the trees, rather than down through 
the foliage. 

A rather slow airspeed usually is necessary for 
any accurate search. This generally is taken care 
of, without reducing power, by making many 
maneuvers. At times it may be helpful to open 
the landing flaps to about 15° to obtain greater 
stability. 

In general, an altitude of from tree-top level 


to 500 feet above the ground is best for investi¬ 
gating particular areas. However, in scanning a 
large area, or in searching for heavily traveled roads 
or trails, a slightly higher altitude should be used. 

Signs of Activity. Contrasts in color may give 
useful hints of enemy activities. The jungle terrain 
is almost a uniform shade of green, except for 
slight differences where the type of vegetation 
changes. This over-all pattern has a sameness about 
it which means that any irregularities will stand 
out if you are set to look for them. A freshly 
broken tree will show up as an orange or yellow 
spot at the break or cut. A clearing or place where 
underbrush has been trampled will be light brown. 
Trails or roads often show through the trees as 


CONFIDENTIAL 


59 





OBLIQUE ANGLE, flying low over the water just offshore, reveals piles of enemy supplies 
hidden under trees. From above, this scene would appear to be nothing more than 

deserted shore line. 


brown lines. Often, especially after heavy rains, 
the ruts of low spots in a trail will be filled with 
water and will show up as silver, due to the reflec¬ 
tion of light from the smooth surface of the water. 
Recently-broken foliage is a duller green than 
surrounding live foliage. This knowledge is useful 
in spotting installations where cut branches and 
palm fronds are used as camouflage. Sometimes 
the branches are laid over objects in an upside- 
down position, and in such cases the leaves show 
up as lighter than the surrounding vegetation. 

Some dead branches and fronds are quite 
natural, but they may indicate where a trail has 
been broken through the underbrush. A small 


patch of brown may indicate the uncamouflaged 
corner of a hut or gun position. In one case where 
many pilots had been looking for a troublesome 
gun position, it was finally discovered by a spot 
of brown foliage which on close inspection proved 
to be leaves scorched by the muzzle blasts. 

Digging activities usually are hard to observe, 
because of their tendency to blend into the back¬ 
ground. However, there is always some contrast. 
The dirt thrown up covers the undergrowth, mak¬ 
ing a brown spot under the trees. Any brown spot 
that does not seem to fit the surroundings is worth 
giving a close and skeptical look. For example, 
one pilot was attracted by a brown streak on the 


60 


CONFIDENTIAL 



OR BROKEN TREES or trampled vegetation 
are signs of man. 


DIFFERENCE IN TONE or color of foliage may 
reveal camouflaged positions. 



WATER IN RUTS may show up trails. 


DUST is clue to hidden roads or moving troops. 




CONFIDENTIAL 


61 


side of a small hill. It turned out to be a landslide, 
which on even closer study was found to have 
been caused by preparation of an enemy obser¬ 
vation post on the side of the hill. 

Parachutes hung up in trees may indicate where 
supplies have been dropped to enemy troops. 
Gardens and clearings are not always targets in 
themselves but may indicate the presence of 
ground troops in the area. Be on the lookout 
for smoke from cooking fires, laundry, dust from 
troops moving, or evidence of new construction in 
villages away from older buildings. 

Take Advantage of Light Angle. The angle of 
light may help reveal evidence of the enemy. The 
long slanting rays of the sun create deep shadows 
and contrast which help you in seeing trails and 
irregularities in the general surface texture. Even 
such small impressions as footprints in the sand 
may be seen in the light of early morning or late 
afternoon to indicate landing places or river cross¬ 
ings or troop movements over soft ground. On 


the other hand, light rays from a high sun during 
the middle of the day may penetrate into the 
jungle and let you see the ground. So be con¬ 
scious of the light angle and use it! 

Angle of Vision. It is important to remember 
also that any installation stands out best from 
some particular angle of view. Thus, things missed 
on the first search may be revealed by looking at 
them again from other angles. From directly 
above, their patterns reveal gun emplacements, 
revetments, pillboxes, or supply dumps. Trails 
may be seen most easily from directly overhead or 
when viewing along the trail—in fact, trails some¬ 
times'may be seen only at two points in a circle 
or from directly overhead. Be very suspicious of 
trails that end abruptly; they may end in some 
enemy installation. 

Patterns. Anything which makes a regular pat¬ 
tern, as a circle, straight line, triangle, or square 
or some combination of them should be suspect. 
Straight lines may indicate buildings or landing 


CIRCULAR PATTERNS along the top of the ridge show the location of antiaircraft batteries. 



62 


CONFIDENTIAL 




ELABORATE VISUAL DECEPTION has been attempted here. The airstrip has been painted 
in patterns similar to those of nearby farm fields, and would be difficult to see except for 
unaltered straight line edges. Hangars at left have been "camouflaged" in obvious pattern 
to attract the eye away from the airfield. Probably they are empty. Unfinished outlines of 
dummy airplanes are on the roofs of the hangars. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


63 



strips, although well camouflaged. Round or 
square patterns, though blended into the back¬ 
ground, may point to fuel tanks, munitions maga¬ 
zines, or supply dumps. 

Discontinuities. Japanese frequently cut down 
some of the trees when constructing air facilities 
but leave as many standing as possible until the 
construction is almost finished—so any slight hole 
breaking the symmetry of the forest should be 
examined. Any interruption of otherwise appar¬ 
ently normal patterning is worth looking into. 
The Japs may use pattern painting to break up 
large areas or they may use dazzle or pattern 
painting to hide the form of buildings, but quite 
often this merely emphasizes its outline unless 
it is extended to the surroundings. 


Look at Shore Lines. Flying low over the water 
just off-shore is the best position for searching the 
coast line, since it permits a view under the trees 
or overhanging cliffs. Special attention should be 
paid to shore lines and to the banks of rivers and 
inlets, since these are logical hiding places for 
barges and small ships. The Japs are especially 
fond of hiding their shipping in small coves, cov¬ 
ered with foliage to make it blend with the shore¬ 
line. They even have camouflaged large ships as 
islands. 

Don’t overlook any little thing along the shore 
line that might have a larger meaning. A pilot 
once reported a native outrigger canoe on the 
shore of a river near our landing site. It was 
perfectly natural for a canoe to be there. How- 


SHORE LINE SEARCH pays off. Top, a camouflaged Japanese river boat is given away 
by its shape in low search. Below left, the boat is hit; at right, burned-out hulk. 




64 


CONFIDENTIAL 




EXTENSIVE DISPERSION of aircraft throughout a cocoanut plantation is used by the Japs 
at this airdrome, but the pattern of the taxi strips and the clearings for individual plane 
revetments stand out clearly from great height. 


ever, the area in which this “unimportant” canoe 
was seen was investigated, and dugouts, trenches, 
and huts were found. The Japs had been using the 


canoe to ferry men across the stream. Evidently 
they thought it looked so natural that they failed 
to conceal it. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


65 


Camouflage. The Japs are getting better all the 
time with artificial camouflage as they are forced 
toward their home islands and away from the 
lush tropics where natural materials were plentiful. 
Our photo reconnaissance and increased bombings 
of their homeland have made them increase their 
efforts in deception. An excerpt from a report 
on an operation against Luzon airfields says: 

‘‘At one airfield an intricate system of taxi- 
ways . . . extended a distance of two miles from 
the airstrip. Almost all the planes were camou¬ 
flaged with leaves and branches and some were 
covered with nets. At an altitude of over 3000 ft. 
they were almost impossible to observe unless the 
individual was acquainted with their location, and 
even then many of them could not be seen. Their 
efforts to take advantage of natural terrain are 
obvious. Revetments are placed in hedge rows; 
aircraft . . . are hidden in the most advantageous 
locations for concealment. Even the houses be¬ 
tween which aircraft were parked in the small 
villages are being used to store supplies and 
munitions. . . 


Much of your success in piercing camouflage 
will depend on knowing where to look for given 
objects, and how they look when camouflaged. 
For instance, Japanese coastal defense has been 
confined largely to the area of the beaches. Usu¬ 
ally, positions are constructed on high ground 
immediately behind the shoreline to dominate 
the beaches by fire power. Otherwise they will 
be placed near the water line to engage the land¬ 
ing forces at the critical moment when they are 
crossing beach obstacles. You know that the Japs 
will take full advantage of terrain to provide both 
frontal and flanking fire on the beach. If there 
are bluffs or cliffs immediately back of the shore 
line, you can be sure the Japs are going to con¬ 
centrate their defense in such cliffs or behind 
them. Their positions in cliffs facing the sea may 
be masked by aprons of stone that have broken 
from the main face. Their mortar positions usually 
are emplaced behind the first available hill, and 
will make full use of timber or other natural cover. 
Concrete pillboxes may be molded into the natural 
slope, and may be colored to blend with the back- 


DON'T WASTE TIME ON DUMMIES. The dummy gun positions shown here, although good, 
are too obvious, and there is no telltale track activity around them. 



66 


CONFIDENTIAL 





LACK OF SHADOW where it should appear makes it easy to distinguish dummies like these 
fake planes painted on the parking strip. Note the real plane at left and its patterns of 

lights and darks. 




POOR DUMMY—flat white painted on dark 
background. No shadow, poor tone. 


POOR DUMMY—black on light attracts 
attention, but is false in tone. No shadow. 


ground. Where natural materials are available, 
skillful use will be made of them, covering over 
pillboxes with sand, earth, and vegetation. 

Whenever you get a chance to study captured 
enemy positions first hand—do it! A look at 
actual installations, showing the exact way in 
which they are laid out and camouflaged, is worth 
a dozen pictures in recognizing similar positions. 

Dummy Installations. The Japs are getting 
better with their dummy installations, even go¬ 
ing to the extent of making dummies so realistic 
that they practically have to be seen at close 
ground view to detect the ruse. They also paint 
poor dummy aircraft silhouettes on runways or 


beaches in such a way as to make certain that they 
will be detected as dummies. The Japs reason that 
when you see such an obvious dummy you will 
hold your fire, congratulating yourself on being 
very sharp-eyed and will look elsewhere for a tar¬ 
get, sparing the important installations that are 
well-hidden nearby. 

Quite often, when good dummies are used, they 
are such close replicas that the only means of dis¬ 
tinguishing them from the real thing is by tone 
and texture. Wood or cloth can be painted to the 
exact shade of steel or dural, but because its tex¬ 
ture varies from the real thing, it reflects light 
differently and has a slightly “off” tone. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


67 











GOOD DUMMY—has form and shadow, bu* tone may be "off." 


Underground Installations 

Cornered Japs are “going underground” on their 
home islands to make their air force harder to 
find and to attack. Single-aircraft concrete shelters 
have been discovered under construction on Oki¬ 
nawa and captured documents reveal that the 
Nips are developing multi-plane underground 
hangars for home-island fighter bases. 

Any underground installation poses a tough 
problem for the searching or attacking pilot, but 
there always are signs on the surface which may 
indicate the location of the activity underground. 
The pattern of the installation may show up, as 
the new, shorter-rooted vegetation covering the 
subsurface hangar may have a different tone, 
which clearly outlines the dimensions by contrast 
with vegetation on undisturbed ground. There 


is bound to be some track activity, which may 
point out the entrance. The entrance and ramps 
will throw a definite shadow unless completely 
camouflaged. The lack of activity on the surface 
—where it may normally be expected—may well 
indicate the presence of underground installations; 
that is, if an airstrip seems to have fewer airplanes 
or revetments than normal, it may be a sign that 
they are underground. 

Captured plans for multi-aircraft underground 
hangars show that they are either octagonal in 
shape, about 90 feet per side, or rectangular, 220 
feet by 250 feet. They may be built into the side 
of a hill or on level ground with a reinforced con¬ 
crete roof covered with earth and vegetation. En¬ 
trances are about 50 feet wide, and 15 feet high 
(or deep). 


68 


CONFIDENTIAL 







Summary—Making the Search 

1. Planning and Coordination. Searches should 
be carefully planned and definite responsibili¬ 
ties assigned crew members for maximum 
observation. Men with most experience should 
be assigned key sectors. Sectors should over¬ 
lap, if possible, for double-check of scanning. 
Alertness should be promoted by rotating 
watches, calling off landmarks, following course 
on map. Crews should be alerted when enter¬ 
ing danger areas or encountering signs of 
enemy activity. When two or more planes are 
cooperating in search of an area, each pilot 
should understand definitely the part of the 
area or sector he is responsible for. 

2. Air Search. Movement, changes, contrast, 
shadow or flash are clues to watch for in search 
of the air. Careful scanning is necessary, par¬ 
ticularly in areas where seeing is difficult, as 
into the sun or under dark clouds. Shadows 
may betray planes which cannot be seen di¬ 
rectly. When a clue is spotted, binoculars 
may reveal details for recognition. 

3. Sea Search. Altitudes of sea search should be 
low enough to enable the pilot to see the 
smallest object he is looking for under weather 
conditions prevailing. Generally 500 to 1000 
feet is satisfactory from both a navigational 
and visual point of view. Clues in sea search 
may be in the form of movement, contrast, 
color or discontinuity. Wakes can be seen be¬ 
fore the ships themselves and the pilot must 
keep alert to distinguish some wakes, particu¬ 
larly those of subs, from white caps. Oil slicks 
and debris may reveal a trail of shipping. Sil¬ 
houettes stand out and horizon should be 
searched, with the pilot changing altitude grad¬ 
ually to change relative position of horizon 
area. Color is a valuable marker against the 
sea, and pilots should be on the lookout for 
dye marker, orange color of rafts and antenna 
balloons. If looking for survivors, keep below 
500 feet if you know they don’t have a raft or 
dye marker—or if there is any doubt about it. 
If they are known to have a raft, it can be 


spotted from 500 to 1000 feet; with marker, it 
can be seen from 1000 to 2000; with signalling 
equipment, it can be seen from 1000 to 5000 
feet. 

4. Land Search. The enemy is trying hardest to 
hide the very things you want to find, using 
camouflage, advantageous terrain, dummy in¬ 
stallations, natural cover, to conceal activities. 
Special technique is needed for search over 
jungle. It requires scanning of large areas, 
watching for contrasts, spots of color, any ir¬ 
regularity that may indicate enemy activity. 
It requires real concentration to make your eyes 
look at the base of trees, not their tops. Usu¬ 
ally, it is necessary to fly to one side of a point 
to be observed on the ground. When “signs” 
are found, circle the area slowly and study the 
ground carefully. An angle of about 45° is 
found best for sighting into small clearings or 
breaks. 

Know and use the light angle. Slanting rays 
create deep shadows which show up depres¬ 
sions, as those made by trenches, trails. Also, 
some installations show up better from one 
angle than another, so examine any suspicious 
area from several angles. 

Patterns reveal installations which can’t be 
seen themselves. Circles, straight lines, trian¬ 
gles, squares, etc., should always be investi¬ 
gated. Even when well camouflaged, the pat¬ 
tern shows up gun positions, runways, mine¬ 
fields, etc. 

Discontinuities should be investigated. Ve¬ 
hicles—as tanks—sometimes can be found by 
watching where their tracks go. Roads that 
don’t continue beyond a point may lead to gun 
emplacements, observation posts, etc. 

Shore Lines should be searched carefully, as 
Japs often hide shipping, supply dumps, camps, 
near the shore, and beach activity or trails may 
lead to important areas. 

Camouflage and dummy installations can be 
detected by phony shadows, “off” tones, con¬ 
trast with surrounding color, discontinuity 
with surrounding patterns. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


69 


SECTION VI 
ATTACK SEARCH 



This is the pay-off! The showdown. The high 
spot for which you have trained your eyes. It is 
imperative that all pilots and aircrewmen apply 
the principles of good observation to attacks. 

Your main thought, when you hit an enemy 
position, is to get in, shoot your guns or rockets, 
and drop your bombs, and get out—but fast! But 
wait a second. Are you sure you see the target, the 
right target? Are you sure none of our own men 
are down there? Are you sure you are on the right 
approach, the one that avoids the heavy AA? Are 
you able, in a few minutes of action, to register the 


many significant details of the area and the action? 

Make no mistake about it, if you have the funda¬ 
mentals of aerial observation down pat, your attack 
will be more effective. If you have prepared your 
mind’s eye thoroughly and have made a habit of 
good sight, you will be able to scan the area swiftly 
and accurately, using contrast, color, pattern, and 
motion to detect the various targets, including 
those that are hard to see because of camouflage 
or terrain. And you will have a better chance of 
keeping your plane and your own skin unper¬ 
forated if you spot the Jap’s AA, his aircraft and 
his ships before his gunners draw a bead on you. 

Thus, attack involves skilled use of every trick 
vou use in air, sea, and land search. Air search as 
you approach the target, obviously, is a necessary 
precaution against fighters that might try to break 
up the attack; and, after you’ve hit and are going 
away, it is an aid to a quick join-up on friendly 
planes. Sea search gives you the word in locating 
enemy or friendly vessels and in marking the posi¬ 
tion of survivors on the way back from an attack. 
Land search principles should be followed in 
quickly locating and assigning targets to be worked 
over and in determining the damage to the target 
and the strength of the position. 

There may be times in attack when you will 
suffer from an embarrassment of riches and fall 
into the state of mind of the kid who couldn’t de¬ 
cide which was the biggest apple when the fruit 
cart turned over. He kept hunting for it until the 
cops came. The remedy for this is to scan quickly, 
but thoroughly, pick the best target that can be 


70 


CONFIDENTIAL 






CLOSE AIR SUPPORT requires careful observation. In this picture it is relatively easy to 
see the men and tanks on the beach, but it becomes much more difficult as they move 

inland among the trees and houses. 


hit advantageously from your position, and give it 
the works. 

Over a target, especially when the action is 
rugged, you have to be on your guard against con¬ 
centrating solely on the most obvious things. It 
does the intelligence officers no good to have a 
flaming fuel dump reported by fifty pilots who 
fastened their eyes on it to the exclusion of every¬ 
thing else. Where there are many targets, there 
may be a strong tendency for all pilots to head 
for the most obvious ones, while equally important 
but inconspicuous prizes go unnoticed. For ex¬ 
ample, in a harbor, the ships that are moving will 


attract attention first, because of their movement 
and the contrast of their wakes—but bigger ships 
may be there, at anchor, or blended against the 
shoreline or the docks. 

CLOSE AIR SUPPORT 

The four main purposes of air support of sur¬ 
face attacks all involve the use of good observa¬ 
tion. First, control of the air requires complete air 
search of the enemy’s air facilities. Second, soften¬ 
ing up an area involves use of land or attack search. 
Third, obtaining information on the enemy re¬ 
quires extensive sea and land search and careful 


CONFIDENTIAL 


71 




MOTION ATTRACTS the eye. Moving targets are easy to see and may distract your eye 
from still ones. The fastest-moving ships shown above are easiest to see, and you might be 
tempted to bomb them while overlooking better but motionless targets. Take a few 
seconds to scan an area and see ALL the targets. 


interpretation of what you see. Fourth, spotting 
fire for artillery, and strafing, rocketing, and bomb¬ 
ing ahead of our troops requires a great precision 
in observation and orientation. 

Pinpoint accuracy—no less—is absolutely neces¬ 
sary in locating and demolishing targets in close 
air support. All too often, in the past, when the 
troops came ashore they have run into well-camou¬ 
flaged enemy positions that were untouched by 
aerial attack, while the obvious positions were 
splattered all over the landscape. You don’t have 


to be told that the cost of such poor observation is 
paid in lives of fellow Americans. The same goes 
double for poor map-reading, orientation, and ob¬ 
servation that results in bombing or strafing our 
own positions. Many times in close air support 
work it will be necessary for you to work over an 
area just ahead of our troops. It may be almost 
impossible, just by looking at the area, to distin¬ 
guish between enemy territory and our own lines. 
Sometimes fluorescent panels, colored smoke, 
rocket flares, or signal lights, are used to mark 


72 


CONFIDENTIAL 









front lines. If smoke is used, be sure that you see 
where it originates and not just where it has blown. 
Don’t forget that the Japs also put out smoke to 
confuse you. Or it may be up to you to locate the 
target on the basis of a gridded map or photo and 
by landmarks—so here is a case where you must 
make sure that the land agrees with the map or 
photo. 

Preparing For Strikes and Support Operations 

Time spent in study of the intelligence informa¬ 
tion before the attack will pay off manyfold when 
you are in the air, headed toward the attack area, 
with your given job to do. For example— 

“A landfall map was provided,” reads a report. 
“This was thoroughly studied. The targets to be 
destroyed, the lay of the land, points of most 
likely enemy opposition, all were impressed on our 
minds. Lengthy spotting drills were held, using 
wads of cotton on wire to represent the salvo 
patterns. One aviator placed the salvo on the 
landfall while others observed the spot. We co¬ 
operated with the . . . battery plot in reporting 
grid locations and choosing targets. The aviators 
also had to understand thoroughly the gunnery 
problems involved and the movement of ships 
throughout the entire bombardment.” 

The importance of preparing your mind’s eye 
for specific targets is emphasized by combat re¬ 
ports, such as this: 

“Unless all pilots can be thoroughly briefed on 
specific targets or target areas, maximum damage 
cannot be inflicted. This is particularly true when 
hitting airfield installations, where the Japs in¬ 
variably employ dispersal and camouflage to the 
greatest advantage. These targets are impossible 
to find if assigned while over the target area and 
in addition expose the pilot to unnecessary AA 
fire while he attempts to find the target.” 

Let’s take a landing on a certain coast. Our 
troops are coming ashore in landing craft. Despite 
heavy bombing, bombardment by naval guns, 
there still are some Japs waiting. They are dug in 
like moles in pillboxes, blockhouses, entrench¬ 
ments. Once ashore our troops deploy as they 
advance inland, and all clear pattern of the action 


is lost, when viewed from the air. The uniforms 
of our troops, our tanks and vehicles, all blend 
with the landscape and are obscured by smoke and 
dust, just as are the enemy’s. Your job is to go in 
at high speed and locate and hit certain installa¬ 
tions that have to be knocked out. How are you 
going to do it? 

Gridded Maps. Well, you have a target map. 
It’s a standard air support type, on which the 
features most significant for recognition purposes 
have been exaggerated, and much of the fine detail 
(which you can’t see anyway) has been eliminated. 
Hills are shown by shaded hachures, and signifi¬ 
cant vegetation is shown in color. The grid is 
standard—numbered squares are 1,000 yards 
square, and the smallest squares, indicated by let¬ 
ter, are 200 yards square. The main landmarks and 
enemy installations are shown—that is, rivers, lakes, 
parks, swamps, roads, canals, railroads, built-up 
areas, and so on. 

Your first task is to locate and get a mental 
“fix” on the general area as you approach. You 
want to line up two or more outstanding and un¬ 
mistakable landmarks that point like fingers in the 
general direction of the target area—pointers that 
will give you orientation as you orbit, as you go 
into your dive, and when you pull up. It so hap¬ 
pens that this area has some excellent pointers. 
First, the shape of the shore line is distinctive, run¬ 
ning down the center of the target area map, 
north and south, with the land mass to the east. 
From the northwest corner extends a thin neck 
of land that runs southeast and joins the mainland 
just below the center of the target area map. At 
the northeast corner is a town that tapers off 
toward the south along the shore line. At the 
southern boundary of the area is a river, coming 
from the east, and its mouth is marked by a pecul¬ 
iarly shaped delta. These big pointers—the neck of 
the land, the city, the shore line, the river—give 
you general orientation. No matter how much you 
orbit, they point toward the center of the target 
area and give you your ground directions. 

Now to get down to cases for close work. Our 
advancing troops are stopped and pinned down by 
fire from a blockhouse that is hidden in the side of 


CONFIDENTIAL 


73 



74 


CONFIDENTIAL 




























































































































































































































































































































































a hill. The commanding officer of the ground 
troops asks the Air Liaison Officer for a rocket 
attack on the blockhouse and designates its loca¬ 
tion as 376-William. The Commander Support 
Aircraft orders the attack, and the Air Coordinator 
designates your division to make the attack, speci¬ 
fying that the target is in 376-William about 375 
yards north of a highway intersection. 

So it is up to you to find grid 376. Your map 
shows you that this square is about 2500 yards 
due west of the junction of that outstanding neck 
of land and the mainland, and is a few hundred 
yards southwest of a distinctive ridge that extends 
due south from the town and curves sharply to the 
east at the edge of grid 376. More particularly, 
square William within 376 is marked by a peculiar 
pimple of a hill. You have an excellent ground 
scale, in addition to known distances between 
these big landmarks, in the form of cultivated 
fields, which you know, from briefing information, 
to be about 100 yards long. 

How to See Front Lines 

Here comes the fine eye-work. As you approach 
from the west you recheck the landmarks, just to 
make sure. There is the town to the port—north; 
there is the river to the starboard—south; down 
ahead is the ridge, the highway, and the single 
little peak that marks your target. 

You line up for the run, making your dive from 
west to east to avoid danger of hitting our own 
troops with ricochets and “over.” Now—just 
where is the front line? You can’t make out the 
individual men and tanks from your approach 
altitude. But there, several hundred yards to the 
west of the target square, at the line you have 
marked on your target map to indicate the front 
line, is a row of front line markers—long fluores¬ 
cent panels that seem to glisten against the dun- 
colored vegetation. Also, several of these panels 
have been laid out in the form of an arrow point¬ 
ing toward 376-William. And at a specified time, 
crimson smoke belches up at regularly spaced in¬ 
tervals along the line, as ordered by the CSA. 
However, if there is any doubt about the location 
of the front lines, or the location of the target, 


the Air Coordinator should go down and have a 
close look, perhaps making a dummy run on the 
target to show its exact location. 

Now—down you go. You can’t fully see the 
target yet—but you are sure it is there and you 
know where our troops are. As you get down 
closer, you should take note of the action. Even 
if you can’t distinguish our troops and vehicles 
from the enemy’s, you should notice position—if 
there are some troops or tanks where they are not 
supposed to be, that information may be impor¬ 
tant; it might be an enemy attack developing. 

As you close range rapidly, there is the target. 
You can’t see it as a distinct form, perhaps, be¬ 
cause the enemy has taken pains in camouflaging 
it. But it is given away by its position and by the 
deep shadows cast by its straight sides. Now even 
the embrasures show up as rectangular black dots. 
Your sights are on the target. You push the firing 
button. Whoosh! There go your rockets, right 
on the target. One Jap blockhouse is knocked out. 
The ground troops spring from their foxholes and 
dash up the hill to mop up with flame-throwers. 

Spotting Shellfire 

Spotting artillery fire involves many things be¬ 
sides good vision, such as judgment of distances, 
good communications, etc. But the whole process 
is keyed to how well you see where and what our 
artillery is hitting. Change of form and color con¬ 
trast are helpful in spotting fire because often it is 
difficult to see the actual bursts on heavily wooded 
terrain. It is fairly easy to see the smoke of the 
explosion, but if you don’t spot it immediately, it 
may have blown away from the scene of the hit. 

A help in determining fairly exact estimations 
of short distances, so necessary in correction of 
shellfire, is to fly over the area and determine the 
height of the trees by finding a fallen one and 
noticing the horizontal distance that it covers. 
Since you know the height of the tree from flying 
just over it, say 100 feet, you can come very close 
in estimating short distances by comparing, in your 
mind’s eye, the fallen tree to the scene. You can 
also determine size from the width of roads, size 
of buildings, length of airstrips, clearings of known 


CONFIDENTIAL 


75 


size, or other objects, using these distances as a 
scale in calling your shots. The main point is to 
prepare yourself for the job, and then apply what 
you have learned. 

Getting the Dope 

Search technique is essential in discovering and 
gathering information on enemy activities, particu¬ 
larly during an amphibious attack. After the land¬ 
ing, the enemy is going to maneuver according to 
his strategy for defense. He may be getting some 
traps or surprises ready for us. Obviously, the 
more we can find out about his plans, the better 
we’ll be able to keep him off balance and thwart 
his strategy. 

Every trick of searching for objects over land 
should come into play in this kind of observation. 
Even though your task may be a specific attack, 
you still should keep your eyes open for any signs 
that might have significance. The smallest, seem¬ 
ingly most insignificant detail may be just the clue 
our intelligence needs to bring a complete picture 
of enemy activity into focus. For instance, in one 
operation a pilot flew very low over a river bed 


and in the slanting light of late afternoon he no¬ 
ticed what appeared to be lines of black dots. On 
circling lower and lower, he finally was able to 
figure them out—footprints! His report of this 
fact led to the discovery and destruction of an 
enemy force that had sneaked across the river in 
the hope of cutting in behind and surprising our 
troops. 

Reporting What You See 

No matter how much you see or how valuable 
it may be to intelligence, it isn’t worth anything 
until you report it. Probably you are a pretty mod¬ 
est sort of person and don’t want to force a lot of 
petty information on the Intelligence Officer. But 
don’t make the mistake of setting yourself up as 
the judge of what he needs to know. You may 
have seen a lot of things that don’t impress you 
at all. Yet, these very things might furnish missing 
clues which fit into the other hot dope he has to 
make the whole picture of enemy strategy clear. 

So—report everything! The ACI won’t accuse 
you of being a bore. 

Furthermore, report when the details are still 



76 


CONFIDENTIAL 







fresh in your mind. The best time of all is when 
you first return to your base, and that is when you 
will be interrogated. So take your mind off every¬ 
thing else and tell all. It will help you and your 
buddies next time! 

Take notes, by all means, of what you see and 
where, while flying. Even if you report it by radio 
at the time, you should make a more complete 
report on return to base. Some notes can be made 
by marking the map of the area you are searching. 
Or perhaps you can best preserve your impression 
by making a sketch or marking a map or photo. 
At any rate—make a note of it. 

And, when you get back to base, try to take your 
mind off that show that is waiting, or the sack, and 
concentrate on giving the ACI a picture of every¬ 
thing you have seen. Let them decide the relative 
importance. It’s their job to listen, and never 
again may you have such an appreciative audience. 
So give! 

Summary—Attack Search 

1. Attack Search involves most skillful use of 
techniques of air, sea, and land search, to make 
possible swift scanning of an area, use of con¬ 
trast, color, pattern, and motion to detect and 
select targets; requires caution to avoid concen¬ 
trating on spectacular targets at the expense of 
important but inconspicuous ones. 


2. Close Air Support. This requires pinpoint ac¬ 
curacy in locating targets under difficult situa¬ 
tions. Preparation should use landfall maps 
and models, careful study of target maps, learn¬ 
ing of prominent landmarks, topography, and 
vegetation as a means of orientation. 

Gridded maps. Standardized target maps em¬ 
phasize significant details. Grid is numbered 
squares 1000 yards per side, within which are 
smaller squares, 200 x 200 yards, indicated by 
letter. Hills are shown by hachures, vegetation 
in color, works of men in black. 

Orientation. In approach, orient yourself by 
means of principal landmarks pointing toward 
the target which provide a mental “fix” on the 
area. Use two and preferably more major 
pointers, and be sure they fit the map. Over 
the target, use more specific pointers near the 
target for close orientation. 

How to See Front Lines. Be sure correct land¬ 
marks are lined up to give you the position of 
front lines. Know the ground scale for sure to 
avoid errors—u§e landmarks of known size or 
vegetation or visible installations, as roads, 
fields, airstrips, clearings, ships, etc., to get a 
scale accurately. Know and recognize front line 
markers, as panels, smoke; check the position 
of men and equipment against areas where it is 
supposed to be; make dummy runs to line up 
the target and get a close look, if necessary. 

3. Spotting Shellfire. Change in form and color 
is useful in spotting fire where the bursts them¬ 
selves can’t be seen. It is of major importance 
for you to get a ground scale accurately, even 
down to 100 feet, in calling shots. Road widths, 
length of fallen trees, size of buildings, air¬ 
strips, etc., can be used in estimating distance. 
Main point is to prepare yourself with informa¬ 
tion beforehand, apply what you know. 

4 . Reporting What You See. Don’t judge what 
intelligence needs to know; note and report all 
details that may be clues to enemy activity. 
Report when details are fresh in mind. Take 
notes on all you see; mark maps and photo¬ 
graphs to indicate locations and nature of 
objects. Report when details are fresh in mind. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


77 




















SUPPLEMENT 
APPENDIX A 


GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHIC INTELLIGENCE CENTER PUBLICATIONS 


Japanese Antiaircraft and Coastal Defense 
Positions (Revision Pending) 

P-300-669 

Restricted 

Published January 1944 
Addenda Published 
February 1944. 

While there are many variations, Japanese gun 
positions usually can be spotted easily, even when 
camouflaged, if you know what their characteristic 
patterns look like. The number, size, and type can 
be interpreted from the general layout, the loca¬ 
tion of the revetments and their size, and the loca¬ 
tion of the fire control. Antiaircraft batteries, for 
instance, have to have a clear field of fire, and so 
are located in clearings; they have to be in certain 
relationship to what they are intended to protect 
and thus their general probable location can be 
estimated; they have to be serviced, and so there 
usually is considerable track activity in their 
vicinity. 

This publication presents a complete collection 
of photographs of Japanese gun installations, in¬ 
cluding antiaircraft and coastal defense positions. 
Wherever possible, verticals, low obliques, and 
closeup ground views of the same position are 


given. It also shows, by diagrams of various actual 
installations, the patterns used by the Japanese in 
laying out their gun positions. 

Japanese Military Buildings 

PIC REPORT No. 2 
OPNAV-16-VP 102 
Confidential 
Published January 1945 

The size and shape of military buildings, as well 
as their location relative to military areas, provides 
much valuable information regarding the nature 
of a target, and frequently may be a key to enemy 
activity. The Japanese have tended to standardize 
on certain types of buildings for certain purposes 
and to locate them according to standard plans. 
For example, when a pilot detects reinforced con¬ 
crete structures, he knows that under normal cir¬ 
cumstances they are essential buildings, and can 
judge their general importance by their location. 
Barracks usually run to long, narrow, one-story 
types and are located in definitely identifiable 
housing areas. In some areas they have large 
nearby reservoirs to collect rainwater. Electronics 
buildings often have peculiar buttressed corners 


78 


CONFIDENTIAL 



TWIN-MOUNT 25-MM. AA, like most Jap 
antiaircraft, is located in a clearing. 


SINGLE 20-MM. AA. Look for track activity 
in vicinity of all antiaircraft installations. 



JAPANESE 75-MM. AA in a typical revet¬ 
ment. 




HEAVY (8 CM.) AA, usually in a revetment 
or clearing. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


79 






MILITARY BUILDINGS of many types are shown in these photos of a Japanese airfield. 
Easily distinguished are the heavily-revetted ammunition storage buildings, the large 
hangar, oil storage buildings, and the power plant, on which a hit has been made. 


80 


CONFIDENTIAL 




IN THIS AREA are storage and machine shops, hangars, barracks, ammunition storage, 

administration building. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


81 





WELL-CAMOUFLAGED JAP PILLBOX smoking from a hit. Note other pillbox in lower right. 



NATURAL ROCK FORMATION skillfully used to hide enemy strong points. Rectangular 
shadows of portholes are visible from some angles, however. 



82 


CONFIDENTIAL 








STONE CONSTRUCTION of this strong point simulates natural surroundings. Only clue is 
rectangular shadow of gun port, visible from the air only from low altitude at a shallow angle. 

PAINTED TO BLEND into background vegetation, it would take a lynx-eyed air observer to 

discover this roadside pillbox. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


83 



REINFORCED CONCRETE pillbox shown in this photo is so thoroughly camouflaged with nat¬ 
ural vegetation that it can be detected only through close observation. Japs used grass to 

shield the shadow cast by the gun port. 


84 


CONFIDENTIAL 





and are located in cleared areas. Ammunition 
storage buildings are distinguished by squareness 
and blank walls and by their location in an iso¬ 
lated area. Pilots should make a point of becom¬ 
ing familiar with the particular characteristics of 
buildings in the area in which they are operating, 
and should know the usual dimensions of various 
buildings as a means of ground scale. 

The publication listed above presents numerous 
ground and air views of all types of Japanese mili¬ 
tary buildings in the Central and South Pacific 
area, together with pertinent information as to 
dimensions, type of construction, function, out¬ 
standing characteristics, relative location. It also 
presents general views and diagrams showing lay¬ 
out of buildings in different types of military areas. 

Japanese Pillboxes 
(Revision Pending) 

Restrictea 

P-300-1242 

Published February 1944 
The Japanese follow no standard pattern in 
building their pillboxes, but usually make them 
conform to and blend with the terrain. Often pill¬ 
boxes are constructed of native materials and are 
covered with earth, rock and driftwood. Ferns 
and vines are planted over the top to complete the 
blending with the background. Such pillboxes are 
very difficult to detect from the air as there is very 
little shadow from the gently sloping sides. On 
small islands, or along coastal areas, many small 
pillboxes are located on the beach, sometimes al¬ 
most at the water’s edge, or along the tree line. 
Sometimes pillboxes, particularly those along a 
beach, cannot be detected from directly above or 
at high angles, but can be spotted in close and low 
oblique search by the rectangular dark shadows of 
the firing embrasures. Also, where trenches inter¬ 
connect a system of pillboxes, the pattern of the 
trenches may lead to the pillboxes, even though 
the latter are completely concealed. Locating pill¬ 
boxes is a vital business—and they require a direct 
hit by a bomb or shell to knock them out. 

This publication presents many views, with ex¬ 
planatory notes of the various kinds of pillboxes 


encountered in the South and Central Pacific. 
Views include verticals, obliques and closeup 
ground shots. 

Japanese Electronics 
Radar 
Radio 

Direction Finding 

OPNAV-16-VP101 
Confidential 
Published January 1945 

Radar. The Japanese have a tendency to locate 
search radar on high points in mountainous areas, 
and on high concrete bases in low flat areas. Radar 
sites are often near the seacoast. Features used in 
interpreting radar installations are the size and 
shape of the screen; the blast wall that sometimes 
is present; the high concrete base, particularly on 
low coral islands; the generator building that some¬ 
times is visible near the screen; sometimes radar is 
found in twin installations; the site usually is clear 
from dense obstructions to give the screen a clear 
field. 

Radio. The Japanese are well aware of the vul¬ 
nerability of their communications and take con¬ 
siderable pains to protect their radio installations, 
using duplicate installations, extensive camouflage, 
and well-protected power plants. Radio masts are 
particularly difficult to spot and interpret from any 
great height. The observer should be familiar with 
the, shadow patterns cast by the various types of 
masts as these may be the only clue visible from 
the air to give away the location and nature of the 
installation. 

Direction Finding. Two types of direction find¬ 
ers are in common use, one being the “Open Ad¬ 
cock” and the other the “Housed Adcock.” The 
open type can be spotted by its pattern of four 
stick masts in a square pattern, a small hut in the 
center, and visible diagonal lines (cables) connect¬ 
ing the masts to the hut. The diagonal distance 
between the poles is about 100 feet. Such setups 
show a very distinctive pattern in slanting light. 
The “Housed Adcock” is a very distinctive struc¬ 
ture, being a square tower with a hipped roof 
about 24 feet square, and characterized by distinc- 


CONFIDENTIAL 


85 


tive buttresses at the corners, or by external brac¬ 
ing to enable the tower to withstand high winds. 
They often occur in patterns of twos or threes, the 
latter sometimes being arranged in a triangle. 

Japanese Camouflage 

OPNAV-16-VP-29 
Restricted 
Published May 1944 

Japanese use camouflage extensively, but not too 
successfully, except when using native materials, 
with which they are very skillful. However, as the 
war comes to their home islands, they may be ex¬ 
pected to make more and better use of all types of 
camouflage. 

As a rule the Japs usually try to “blend” build¬ 
ings with the background, and to “hide” gun posi¬ 
tions by almost complete covering (when they 
camouflage these at all). Where natural materials 
are used it takes a good eye acquainted with the 
scene and trained to distinguish between shades 
of color and to look for slight contrasts and discon¬ 
tinuities to penetrate a hidden position. 

Dispersal of installations and equipment to 
make use of trees, hills, hedges and other natural 


cover is another characteristic of the Japanese-he 
knows the value of a natural shadow as a hiding 
place from air search. 

The Jap’s use of paint to create illusions or to 
blend is increasing. A favorite method has been 
to cover buildings, airstrips and vehicles with wavy 
zebra stripes. Often this is employed with solid 
dark bands at the ends of buildings designed to 
“cut off” the ends and make them seem smaller. 
Another method is the use of large irregular spots 
of paint to “break up” the form and mass of build¬ 
ings. Sometimes these spots are highly colored to 
produce a “dazzle” effect, supposed to blend the 
buildings with surroundings and to deceive as to 
their size. 

Nets and garnishing are used by the Japanese 
to blend installations and to break up the outlin¬ 
ing shadows. Often, however, the Japs go to great 
lengths to conceal gun positions or other installa¬ 
tions, but often wipe out the intended effect by 
doing nothing to conceal the earth spoil or the 
trampled and slashed vegetation in the vicinity. 

This publication presents a collection of selected 
photographs of Japanese camouflage and analyzes 
the various types. 


DUMMY PLANE of woven straw and a camouflaged revetment. The dummy plane throws a 
realistic shadow, but its tone differs markedly from the real thing. Japs will go to great 

lengths to fool your eyes. 



86 


CONFIDENTIAL 




LABYRINTH OF LINES has been painted on this airstrip in an attempt to blend it with the 
surroundings and to confuse the eye. At upper part of strip a road is simulated. Straight- 
line edges of the strip will stand out, however, and the light tone of the strip still contrasts 
with background. Note use of terrain for location of antiaircraft positions and aircraft 

revetments, also covered revetments. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


87 



WASTED BOMBS have hit near these dummy gun positions, which are obvious fakes because 
of the lack of any track activity around them and the shallowness of the revetments. 


THIS 5-INCH GUN is virtually invisible from the air unless you happened to be close enough 
to see the shine of light on the barrel. The Japs are masters in the use of natural materials. 



88 


CONFIDENTIAL 



DUMMY OF 4.7-IN. antiaircraft gun with shallow revetment carelessly made and 
camouflage simulated with palm fronds. 


CONFIDENTIAL 


8 ? 



OTHER PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE 

U. S. Naval Photographic Intelligence Center 
Publications (PIC) 

Japanese Searchlights, Published February 
1944 (Revision Pending). 

Japanese Barricades, Published April 1944 
(Revision Pending). 

Japanese Aircraft Shelters, Published May 
1944. 

Japanese Supply Dumps, Published June 1944. 
Japanese Landing Craft, Published October 
1944. 

Determination of Ships’ Speeds from Aerial 
Photographs, Published October 1944. 
Underwater Depth Determination, Published 
October 1944. 

In Preparation: 

Japanese Aircraft 

Beach Interpretation 

Shipping Interpretation 

Shadow Factor Tables 

Physiography and Vegetation of the Pacific 

Publications published jointly by PIC and 
Assistant Chief of Air Staff. USAAF 

Photographic Interpretation Handbook, Pub¬ 
lished April 1944. (Revision Pending). 
The Petroleum Industry, Published July 
1944. 

The Coke, Iron, and Steel Industries, Pub¬ 
lished September 1944. 

In Preparation: 

The Aluminum Industry 

The Aircraft Industry 

The Copper Industry 

The Lead and Zinc Industries 

The Magnesium Industries 

The Munitions Industry 

The Power and Gas Industries 

The Shipbuilding Industry 

The Sugar and Alcohol Industries 

90 


Miscellaneous Publications Related to Aerial 
Observation 

Manual for the Use and Construction of Ter¬ 
rain Models. OPNAV-16-VS56, Published 
May 1944. 

Recognition Manuals— 

Ships: FM 30-50; NAVAER 00-80V-57 
Aircraft: FM 30-30: BUAER 3 

Methods for Locating Survivors Adrift at Sea 
on Rubber Rafts. Hydrographic Office 
No. 235. 

Maintenance and Repair of Transparent 
Plastics. Engineering Handbook Series for 
Aircraft Repair. AN 01-1 A-l2, Published 
25 October 1944. Restricted. 

Night Vision for Airmen. OPNAV 33-NY- 
13, NAVAER 00-80T-17. Published Au¬ 
gust 1944. 

Naval Aviation Night Vision Instructor’s 
Manual. NAVMED-296. Published Sep¬ 
tember 1944. Restricted. 

Manual of Aircraft Camouflage and Factors 
Governing Visibility of Aircraft in Flight. 
BUAER, Published May 1943. Confiden¬ 
tial. 

Air-Sea Rescue Bulletin. 

Published Monthly by the Air-Sea Rescue 
Agency, U. S. Coast Guard. No. 1, June 
1944. ' 

Camouflage of Antiaircraft Artillery. War 
Department Field Manual FM 5-20F. Pub¬ 
lished May 1944. Restricted. 

Camouflage of Aircraft on the Ground and 
Airdromes. War Department Field Man¬ 
ual FM-5-20E. Published June 1944 Re¬ 
stricted. 

Camouflage of Bivouacs, Command Posts, 
Supply Points, and Medical Installations. 
War Department Field Manual FM 
5-20C. Published June 1944. Restricted. 

Photographic Identification and Analysis of 
Japanese Antiaircraft Defenses. Flak In¬ 
formation Bulletin No. 9. OPNAV-16-V 
No. A 100, May 1945. Confidential. 

CONFIDENTIAL 


APPENDIX B 


STANDARD SYMBOLS 


In accordance with agreements approved by the 
Joint Chiefs of Staff on 2 August 1944, the en¬ 
closed standard symbols have been prepared for 
use of the United States Forces by the Chief of 
Naval Operations, Navy Department, with the 
concurrence of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, 
War Department, and Assistant Chief of Air Staff, 
Intelligence, War Department. 

These symbols are intended for standard use 
throughout the United States Forces in connec¬ 
tion with photographic interpretation reports, 
photographs, mosaics, overlays, overprints, target 


charts, damage assessment, beach studies, maps 
and map substitutes made from aerial photographs, 
three-dimensional terrain models, etc. 

In order to effect standardization of additional 
symbols required from time to time, proposed new 
symbols should be forwarded by initiating service 
agencies to the Chief of Naval Operations (Op 
16-V-P), Navy Department, Washington, D. C., 
for concurrence and dissemination. 

These symbols will be used in all CINCPAC- 
CINCPOA publications prepared after 1 April 
1945. 


AIRFIELDS AND 
SEAPLANE BASES 


AIRCRAFT 

-f 

AIRCRAFT DAMAGEO 

r 

AIRCRAFT, DUMMY 

D 

AIRCRAFT REVETMERT 

n 

AIRCRAFT, REVETMENT 

UNDER CONSTRUCTION 

l-i 

i 1 

AIRCRAFT SHELTER 

isi 

AIRFIELD,COMPLETE FACILITIES 

o 

AIRFIELD, 

REFUELING FACILITIES 

o 

LANOING GROUND,NO FACILITIES 

+ 

SEAPLANE BASE. 

COMPLETE FACILITIES 

© 

seaplane BASE, 

REFUELING FACILITIES 

© 

SEAPLANE ANCHORAGE, 

NO FACILITIES 


SEAPLANE RAMP 

-TW 


DAMAGE ASSESSMENT 


BOMB PLOT 


SINGLE BOMB CERTAIN M 

WITH CRATE*_ | 


SINGLE BOMB CERTAIN, 

NO CRATER 

• 

SIN6LE BOMB PROBABLE. 

NO CRATER 

o 

ONE OR MORE BOMBS CERTAIN 

IN VICINITY OF^ ARROWHEAD 

i 

ONE OR MORE BOMBS PROBABLE 

IN VICINITY OF ARROWHEAD 

A 


hREA OF BURSTS 


FIRE LOCATION 

* 

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: FOR OVERLAYS 

AGtiT 

GOOD COPED 01 LP ^ 

STDucmnu. aiPEDficui/ffinnuMCj 

MEOlUM l POO A 

COVER A 1st 

N. L A10NE 

N.L PLUS FI IE 

MAE ALOME 

DOUBTFUL 

’ EZHT 

gsssa 

ggga pzti r~i 

1111 

PRIOR OAMAGf FROM DAMAGE MOT REPAIRIO 

earlier raids 

| 0«AGC REPAIRED 


REPAIR STUDIES: FOR OVERLAYS 


«E» MilLOIMOS 

CMSTaCTlOa COMPLETED SiPEIflCUl IEP1IAS 

STMICPDIU acpiins 

□77] 

’ CZ2Z1 

comstuctiom 
II PROGRESS 

REPAIR OF 04MAGE0 AREAS 

MEm builoimgs 

a 


LCAJT ACTlVlTf 


PREPARATION FOR REPAIRS) , 
| SITE ClEAREO OR NO ACTION 


COLON INDEX 

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: FOR PHOTOGRAPHS 

ROTE: SYMBOLS Ai£ SIMILAR TO THOSE USED 
OS OVERLAYS WITH Dl FFEREiTl ATIOM IV 
COLOR. 


N.E. ALONE 

GREEN 

N.E. PLUS FIRE 

PURPLE 

FIRE ALONE 

REO 

DOUBTFUL 

YELLOW 

REPAIR STUOIES: FOR PH0T06RAPH 

IS 

MOTE: SVillOLS: OOTLIME FOR CLEARABCE 
completed, ckoss match for repairs im 

PROGRESS, SOLID FOR REPAIRS COMPLETED. 


TO STRUCTURAL DAMAGE 

PURPLE 

TO SUPERFICIAL DAMAGE 

GREEN 

TO ROOF DISTURBANCE 

YELLOW 

FIRST AIO REPAIJS 

BLUE 

NEW BUILDIN6S 

RED 

CONDITION OF AREA OR SITE 
(CLEARANCE OR NO ACTION) 

BLACK 

CLOUD OBSCURED 


SMOKE OBSCURED 

r$uonE j 

LINE OF FLI6NT 


NADIR POINT 

❖ 


ELECTRONICS 


DIRECTION FINDER 

> 

POWER STATION 

H 

POWER TRANSMISSION LINE 
(OBSTRUCTION) 



CONFIDENTIAL 


91 




























































POWER TRANSMISSION LINE 
(ROT OISTRUCT1 ON) 

»•-- — * 

RADAR 


RAOIO NAVIGATIONAL AID 

> 

RA0I0 STATION 

* 

RAOIO TRANSMITTER 


SEARCHLIGHT 

& 

SEARCHLIGHT - 
RADAR CONTROLLED 


SOUND LOCATOR 


TOWER, CONTROL 

f 

TOWER, LIGHT 

t 

TOWER, RADIO 

i 

TOWER, SI6NAL 

if 

TELEPHONE OR TELEGRAPH 
LINE 

‘ T ' * * 7 * 

TRANSFORMER STATION 

# 

WEATHER STATION 

+ 


EMPLACEMENTS 


IF material of which obstacle is 

CONSTRUCTED CAN IE DETERMINED, 

ADD APPROPRIATE "MATERIAL INDEX" 

BENEATH SYMBOL. 

MATERIAL INDEX 

C-CONCRETE, l LOG, M-MASONRY, 

V-WOOD. S-STEEL, E-EARTH 

BUNKER 

ft' 

CASEMATE OR BLOCKHOUSE 

N 

EMPLACEMENT, UNOCCUPIEO 


EMPLACEMENT, COVEREO 

o 

EXAMPLE 


H-GUN, 2 N 0 MM HEAVY 

COAST DEFENSE BATTTRY 

IN COVERED EMPLACEMENTS 

Hlr- 

FINE CONTROL CENTER 

A 

FIRE CONTROL RADAR 

A 

F IRE CONTROL VISUAL 

e- 

FOX HOLE - IN QUANTITY.OUTLINE 
AREA FREEHAND A ANNOTATE 

A 

OBSERVATION POST 

A 

OP 

OBSERVATION POST, 

ARTILLERY 

A 

OW 

OBSERVATION TOWER 

t\ 

OP 

PILLBOX. - GUN AXIS SriftwS”' - 

APPROX. DIRECTION OF FIRE . 
SHOW SIZE OF GUN IF MOWN. 


SNIPEK PCS T 

A 

PERSONNEL SHELTERS 

(A ) / B 0 V F l *■ ) E E L Gw GROUND 

(H m 


STR0N6 PO<INT 

C25 

TRENCH, COMMUNICATION 

/VVAA 

TRENCH, W/FIRING BAYS 

AUU 

TRENCH, FIRE 

JT-TLTL 

WEAPONS PIT, INFANTRY 

7^ 


MILITARY AREAS 


BARRACKS AREA 

1 j 


9IV0UAC AREA 

r w< vodac i 

] 

COMMANO POST 



COMMAND POST AREA 



MILITARY OCCUPATION 

y mij 

NEW CONSTRUCTION 

1-1 

• u/C i 

1 _ l 


PARK, ARMOREO: 

AF/V 

40 

OUTLINE AREA, INDICATE TYPE WHERE 

POSSIBLE ANO SHOW NUMERICALLY 

THE NUMBER OF PIECES 


PARK. ENGINEER EQUIPMENT: 

T tNO 

[ COUlP 

OUTLINE AREA AND INDICATE TYPE 
WHERE POSSIBLE. 


PARK. MOTOR: 

nn 


-OOTlI n(~ a R £ a , IHDICATt TtPe where 

POSSIBLE AND SHOW NUMERICALLY 

THE NUMBER OF VEHICLES. 


PARK, ORONANCE: 

P owo j 


OUTLINE AREA, INDICATE TTF f *HERE 

POSSIBLE AND SNOW NUMER (CALL 1 

THE NUMBER OF VEHICLES. 


STORES, area: 

CD 


AREA OF STORES TO BE INCLOSED IN 

A SOLID RING. 


AMMUNITION 

i 


BUR IEO 



COAL 



ENGINEER (OR CHEMICAL^ 

ANNOTATE G) 

m 


LOOSE 

• 

HP§ 


LUMBER 

= = 


OIL OR GAS 

T 

WATER 

© 


TENT A RE A 

ids 


TENT 

a 



NAVAL AND 
HYDROGRAPHY 


ANCHORAGES 

SHIP 

J 

L 


SHIP. EMERGENCY 

t 

SHIP, W/COMPLETE 
FACILITIES 

<D 

BEACHES 

in 

LOCATION AND EXTENT 

GRADIENT 

% 

CENTER 

WED W£D 2 

PPD 

LEFT FLANK - FROM SEA 

WED WED 2 

P P 

NI6HT FLANK • FROM SEA 

WED WED 2 

P P D 

BUOYS ANO LIGHTS 

BUOY, BELL, ETC. 

0 

•WELL 

BUOY. LIGHTEO 

.0. 

BUOY, UNSPECIFIED 

0 

• 

LIGHTSHIP 


LIGHT, UNSPECIFIED 

* 

CRANE 

E=3— 

DANGERS 

OANGER. AREA 

*••• • • 

rock, awash 

* 

ROCK. SUNK 

+ 

WRECK, AWASH 


WRECK, SUNK 

-H4- 

DREDGE 


DRY-OOCK 

<=>( 

DRY-DOCK. FLOATING 

<= 

MARINE hAILWAY 


NET. SUBMARINE 


NET. TORPEDO 

•« 

REEFS. BARS AND SHOALS 

T 

EDGE OF CORAL REEF 


EDGE OF ROCK REEF 


SAND BAR 

.‘sa»o 

CORAL HEAD - AREA 

f COW 4L~1 

U[»DSJ 

CORAL HEAD - ISOLATED 


TIDES AND CURRENTS 

EBB 

2 <N 

FLOOD 

2 «N w 

GENERAL 

— 

VESSELS 

MERCHANT 

cz=> 


92 


CONFIDENTIAL 














































































































































































SEE JMST SECT ION OF 

IN P |. HANDBOOK 

JAN #3 

NAVAL 




SEE standard designations IN 

P.1. HANDBOOK 

NAVE AND SURF CONDITIONS 

BREAKERS 


SURF LINE 

'V 

ADDITIONAL SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIA¬ 
TIONS FOR HYDROGRAPHIC DESIGNA¬ 
TIONS SHOULD CONFORM TO THOSE 
PUBLISHED IN H.O. NO. 8. 


OBSTACLES 


IF MATERIAL OF WHICH EMPLACEMENT 

IS CONSTRUCTED CAN BE DETERM 1 NED t 

ADO APPROPRIATE 'MATERIAL INDEX* 
BENEATH SYMBOL. 

ANTI-TANK BARRIER 

***** 

ANTI-TANK DITCH 

MJLM m 

ANTI-TANK DITCH, 

COVEREO 


BARRAGE BALLOON 


DEMOLITION CHAR6E 

« ■ -jocwl 

OBSTACLES. FIXEO 

A/^A. 

C 

OBSTACLES, MOVABLE 

nnn n 

L 

STAKES • PLOT POSITION 

• • • • 

• • • • 

ROAD BLOCK DEMOLITION 


ROAD BLOCK PARTIAL 

—“v* — 

-- 

ROAD BLOCK TOTAL 

=x= 

MINES 

— 

MINED AREA, LANO 

■f AKCA 7 

- y -' 

MINED AREA, VATER 


MINE FIELD GAP 


•IRE, BROAD AREA 

XJLXXX 

BASE OF SYMBOL INDICATES LOCA¬ 
TION OF FIRST STRAND . OEPTH OF 
ZONE IN FEET IS INDICATED BY 
NUMERALS. 

VIRE, CONCERTINA SINGLE 


MIRE, CONCERTINA DOUBLE 

***** 

WIRE. SINGLE FENCE 

— w »» 

WIRE. OOUBLE FENCE 

H' H - *+-*. 


SPECIAL SYMBOLS 


GENERAL COLOR INDEX 

CULTURAL 

• LACK 

PLANT GROWTH 

CNC 1 « 

TOPOGRAPHY 

BROWN 


HYDROGRAPHY 

• LUC 

ENEMY DEFENSES 

• CO 

SPECIAL SYMBOLS 

OEPTH A PEACH STUDIES 

BEACH MATERIAL 


MUD OR SILT 


SANO 


PEBBLE 

% 

COBBLE 


SHINGLE 


BOULDER 


BED ROCK 


KELP OR SEAWEED 


BOTTOM MATERIAL 

USE SAME DES IGNAT IONS AS FOR 
BEACH MATERIAL. 

SAND BAR ABOVE DATUM 


SANO BAR BELOW DATUM 


SEA WALL 

***** 

OBSTACLES. UNDERWATER 

OBSTACLE. LARGE. FIXED 

■ 

TETRAHEDRON. RAMP OR 

HEDGE HOG, FIXED 

▲ 

tetrahedron. RAMP OR 

HEDGE HOG. MOVEABLE 

A 

STAKES. PILES OR RAILS 

• • • • • • 

IN LINE, SHOW NUMBER OF 
TETRAHEDRA ETC. BETWEEN 
PRECISELY LOCATED POINTS. 


IN multiple rows. 

SHOW BY LINE 

*==*-- 

WHEN USED WITH WIRE OR MINES, USE 
PROPER SYMBOLS. USE MATERIAL TNDEX 
WHERE KNOWN. 

AS 

A 10 A 

'AtTSA- 

c 

OR 

L 


WAVE & SUHF SYMBOLS 

FOR USE IN DEPTH DETERMINATION 
FORMULAE. 

WAVE LENGTH 

L 

distance outermost 

BREAKERS FROM OATUM 

LINE 

L b 

WAVE PER I 00 

P 

WAVE VELOCITY 

C 

WAVE HEIGHT - TROUGH 

TO CREST 

H 

ANGLE WAVE CREST WITH 

BOTTOM CONTOURS 

o c 

ANGLE OF BREAKERS 

WITH BEACH 

D 

VELOCITY OF AL0N8-SN0RE 
CURRENT IN KNOTS 

o 

r 

SUBSCRIPT *0* REFERS 

TO VALVES IN DEEP 

WATER - EXAMPLE. 

C 0 

• 

LOW WATER DATUM 

CO* I.OW WKTt*^ 

HIGH WATER DATUM 

MUM 

SOUNDINGS IN FATHOMS 

6 

SOUNDINGS IN FEET 

© 

CONTOURS, HYDROGRAPHIC 


CRITICAL LINE SPECIAL PURPOSES 

— 


TERRAIN FEATURES 


BLAST WALL • LINE CON- 

FORMS TO SHAPE OF INSTAL- - 

LAT 1 ON PROTECTED. 

RETAINING WALL 


bridge: 

- 

& 

indicate width in feet and con- 

STRUCTION MATERIAL '3Y 'MATERIAL 
INDEX* 

BRID6E, OUT 

=»*= 

BRIDGE, PONTON 

X-X 

BUILDING 


m 


BUILDING, BURIED 


Hi 


BUILDING, DUG IN 

[ 

l i 


BUILDING, REVETTED 


□ 

BUIL0IN6, UNDER 

CONSTRUCTION 

on 

CABLE 

CANcC 

CABLE, BURIED 

C*BLC 

CANAL 

C * * A L 

CEMETERY 

EE 

CLIFF 


CLIFF, ROCKY 



CONFIDENTIAL 


93 





















































































































































TANK, WATER 

® 

TOWER, UNSPECIFIED OR 
OBSTRUCTION 

A 

TOWER, WATER 

A 

UNDERGROUND ENTRANCE 

2= 

VEGETATION 

AREA OF SPECIFIC VEGETA- 
T 1 VE TYPE (ON PHOTOGRAPHS) 

. $MO«T 
6NASS 

HAIM 

ro«cst 


HEOGE 

vw- 

BRUSH 


CONIFEROUS FOtEST 

♦ * 

• • • 

* * • » 

DEC 1 OUOUS FOREST 

cq, 

GRASSLAND 

AAilk. 

**■ 

t b 

MANGROVE 


ORCHARO OR PLANTATION 

88§8 

PALMS 

Vf 

RAIN FOREST OR JUNGLE 

owo 

towo 

RICE FIELD 

’f * V 

STUMP LANO 

M. A 

M A. M X 
a. 

SU6AR CANE 

” - 

SWAMP FOREST 

Hgf 

SWAMP OR MARSH 


TREE 

c 

TIOAL FLATS 


OVERFLOWED LANO 


SLOPE 


FALLS OR RAPIOS 

XwAPlOS 

X^TALLS 

WELL 

• til 

o 

WELL DERRICK 

A 

WINOMILL 

S 


WEAPONS 


HEAVY - 75 MM AND OVER 

* 

AUTOMATIC - 13.2 TO 

HO. MM 

6 

MACHINE GUN 6.5 - 7.7 MM 

6 

TWIN MOUNT 

6 

TRIPLE MOUNT 

8 

OUAL PURPOSE 

O^P 

SELF PROPELLED (HEAVY) 

l+l 

RAILWAY (HEAVY) 



SHIP 

A 

TOWER 

t 

HEAVY - OVER 75 MM 

* 

MEDIUM - 50 - 75 MM 

£ 

LI6HT - LESS THAW 50 MM 

0 

SELF-PROPELLEO (HEAVY) 

* 

SUPER-HEAVY - OVER 

2*0 MM 

* 

HEAVY - OVER 175 MM 

A 

MEDIUM - 105 - 175 MM 

A 

LI6HT - LESS THAN 105 MM 

0 

HOWITZER - SUPER-HEAVY 

0VfR 2*0 MM 


HOWITZER - HEAVY - OVER 
175 MM 

A 

HOWITZER - MEDIUM - 
120 - 175 'MM 

A 

HOWITZER • LIGHT - LESS 
THAN 120 MM 

A 

HEAVY - OVER 175 MM 

* 

MEDIUM - |05 - 175 MM 


LIGHT - LESS THAN 105 MM 

A 

SELF-PROPELLED (HEAVY) 

* 

NOWITIZER - NEAVY -OVER 
175 MM 

A 

HOWITZER - MEOIUM - 

120 - 175 MM 

A 

HOWITZER - LIGHT - LESS 
THAN 120 MM 

A 

HEAVY 

— 

LIGHT 

— 

FIELO OF FIRE 

s 

X 

MORTAR (ANNOTATE SIZE) 


MORTAR - BARRAGE 
(ANNOTATE SIZE) 

A 

RAILWAY GUN 

■’"A”’ 

RAILWAY GUN ON TURNTABLE 

H I>- 

ROCKET PROJECTOR, SINGLE 
(ANNOTATE SIZE) 


ROCKET PROJECTOR, MULTIPLE 
(ANNOTATE SIZE) 

n 

VEHICLE, ANIMAL DRAWN 

0 

VEHICLE, ARMORED 


VEHICLE, MOTOR 

* 

BATTERY - NO. OF GUNS: 

NUMERAL ON R IGHT OF AP¬ 
PROPRIATE SYMBOL INDI¬ 
CATES NUMBER OF PIECES 

A 

GUN SIZE: NUMERAL LEFT 

OF APPROPRIATE SYMBOL 
INDICATES SIZE IN 
MILLIMETERS 

7^4 

WEAPONS OR EMPLACEMENT 

DESTROYED 

& 

WEAPON. DUMMY 

0 

' 6 * 

WEAPON. OOUBTFUL 

? 

• 


94 


CONFIDENTIAL 































































































































































































APPENDIX C 
ESTIMATING SIZE 
AND DISTANCE 


45 ANGLE OF SIGHT METHOD 



CONFIDENTIAL 


95 







There are a number of methods for estimating 
the distance of an object in slant range or along 
the ground, in relation to your aircraft. All of 
these are based on simple triangular relationships, 
mostly the right angle. 

45° Angle of Sight. When you spot an object at 
an angle of 45° from your horizontal line of sight, 
then the ground distance from the spot over which 
you are flying to the object is exactly the same as 
your altitude above the surface. When your alti¬ 
meter is not too far off in calibration from the land 
surface at the point, this is an easy method for 
estimating ground distance. The difficulty lies in 
judging the angle accurately. “Hash” marks can 
be placed on your plane so that when in level 


flight, with your line of sight lined up with the 
hash mark, the line of sight is 45° from horizontal. 

“Bow and Beam” Method. This consists of lay¬ 
ing out a right triangle along your line of flight, 
using your speed and time to measure a leg of the 
triangle. First, spot the object when it is 45° off 
the line of flight, in the bow position. Note the 
exact time with your stop watch as the object 
comes into position. Maintain a constant known 
speed until the object is exactly off your beam, or 
90°, and check the elapsed time. Knowing the 
time and the true airspeed, it is possible to esti¬ 
mate quickly the distance of this leg of the course. 
The distance of the object, of course, is exactly 
the same. 


BOW AND BEAM METHOD 



96 


CONFIDENTIAL 




















































































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